Plant-Derived Mucilage for Nanocarrier Fabrication: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Beatrix Zheng and Version 1 by Agnieszka Najda.

ŁEatwo pozyskiwany śluz z różnych części roślin jest bezwonną, bezbarwną i pozbawioną smakusily sourced mucus from various plant parts is an odorless, colorless and tasteless substancją o pojawiającym sięe with emerging commercial potencjale komercyjnym w rolnictwie, żywności, kosmetykach i ftial in agriculture, food, cosmetics and pharmaceutykach ze względu na swoje nietoksyczne iicals due to its non-toxic and biodegradowalne właściwościable properties. SItwierdzono, że śluz pochodzenia roślinnego może być stosowany jako has been found that plant-derived mucilage can be used as a naturalny zagęszczacz lub emulgator oraz thickener or emulsifier and an alternatywa dla syntetycznych polimerów i dodatkówive to synthetic polymers and additives. PoniBeważ jest niewidzialną barierą oddzielającą powierzchnię od otaczającejcause it is an invisible barrier that separates the surface from the surrounding atmosfery, jest stosowany jako jadalne powłoki przedłużające okres przydatności do spożycia świeżych warzyw i owoców oraz wielu produktów spożywczychphere, it is used as edible coatings to extend the shelf life of fresh vegetables and fruits as well as many food products. OpróczIn swoich właściwości funkcjonalnych, śluz może być również wykorzystywany doaddition to its functional properties, mucilage can also be used for the produkcji nanonośnikówction of nanocarriers. SkWe focupiamy się na metodach ekstrakcji śluzu i jego wykorzystaniu jakos on mucus extraction methods and its use as a naturalnego konserwantu dla świeżyc preservative for fresh produktówce. Wyszcze dególniliśmy kluczowe właściwości związane z ekstrakcją i konserwacją żywności,tailed the key properties related to the extraction and preservation of food, the mechanizm wpływu śluzu na właściwoścism of the effect of mucus on the sensoryczne properties of produktów, metody powlekania przy użyciu śluzu oraz jego recepturę na konserwowanie owoców i warzywcts, coating methods when using mucus and its recipe for preserving fruit and vegetables. ZUnderozumienie ekstanding the ecologicznych, ekal, economicznych i naukowych czynników and scientific factors of produkcji oraz efektywności śluzu jako wielokierunkowego środka otworzy jego praktyczne zastosowanie w wielu gałęziach przemysłuction and the efficiency of mucus as a multi-directional agent will open up its practical application in many industries

  • nanohydrogel
  • food applications
  • biopolymers
  • polysaccharide

1. Wstęp1. Introduction

Polimery pochodzenia roślinnego cieszą się dużym zainteresowaniem w przemyśle spożywczym i innych ze względu na ich różnorodne zastosowania przemysłowe, takie jak powlekanie filmem, emulgator, spoiwo i środki żelujące, dlatego są nadmiernie wykorzystywane w przemyśle włókienniczym, papierniczym i kosmetycznym [ 1] , 2 ]. Obecnie, ze względu na niebezpieczny wpływ polimerów syntetycznych na zdrowie człowieka, ludzie wykazywali duże zainteresowanie biopolimerami pochodzenia roślinnego (guma, śluz, celuloza i glukany) jako skutecznym składnikiem do formułowania przyjaznych dla środowiska, zrównoważonych, kosztownych -skuteczne produkty [ 3 ]. Co więcej, duża liczba polisacharydów może być również wytwarzana biosyntetycznie przez kilka żywych organizmów, w tym rośliny, glony, zwierzęta, bakterie i grzyby [4 ]. Również naturalne polisacharydy są wykorzystywane w przemyśle spożywczym, ponieważ uważane są za bezpieczne do spożycia przez ludzi [ 5 ]. Spośród różnych polisacharydów śluz pochodzenia roślinnego jest szeroko stosowany w różnych gałęziach przemysłu spożywczego ze względu na jego cenne zastosowania o szerokim spektrum działania [ 6 ]. Zasadniczo można klej można otrzymać z różnych roślin lub ich poszczególnych części, takie jak aloe vera , Salvia hispanica nasion Cordia dichotoma , Basella alba, babki płesznika, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba , Cactaceae, Abelmoschus esculentus, Trigonella foenum-graecum , Moringa oleifera, i Linum usitatissimum .Śluz pochodzenia roślinnego, ze względu na swoje charakterystyczne właściwości zdrowotne (przeciwnowotworowe, hamowanie enzymu konwertującego angiotensynę rozciąga się na cukrzycę i stymulacja odporności) oraz właściwości spożywcze, jest szeroko stosowany jako składnik aktywny do formułowania produktów farmaceutycznych, funkcjonalnych i nutraceutycznych [ 7]. ]. Strukturalnie śluz (kompleks polimerycznych polisacharydów) składa się głównie z węglowodanów o silnie rozgałęzionych strukturach, które składają się z jednostek monomerycznych L-arabinozy, D-ksylozy, D-galaktozy, L-ramnozy i kwasu galakturonowego. Zawierają również glikoproteiny i różne składniki bioaktywne, takie jak garbniki, alkaloidy i steroidy [ 8 , 9 , 10]. Również śluz wytwarza nieskończoną liczbę monosacharydów podczas hydrolizy, w zależności od rodzaju produktów hydrolizy otrzymanych ze względu na charakter polisacharydu. Można go również dalej klasyfikować na cukry pentozowe (ksylan) i cukry heksozowe (celuloza i skrobia) i może być uważany za składniki gumopodobne ze względu na ich podobne właściwości fizjologiczne. Jednak zarówno śluz, jak i guma są głównie związane z hemicelulozami w składzie, z wyjątkiem cukrów wytwarzanych przez hemicelulozy, takich jak ksyloza, glukoza i mannoza, zamiast cukrów wytwarzanych przez gumy, takich jak galaktoza i arabinoza [ 11 , 12].]. Co więcej, można je wykorzystać w kilku zastosowaniach, takich jak powlekanie jadalne, gojenie ran, tworzenie tabletek, kapsułkowanie, oczyszczanie wody i różne nanonośniki. Śluzy wykazują doskonałe właściwości funkcjonalne, jednak ze względu na wiązania wodorowe pomiędzy różnymi grupami funkcyjnymi i innymi grupami polarnymi, odgrywają również ważną rolę w tworzeniu błony, emulsji, powlekanych nanocząstek metali i żelu [ 13 ]. W ostatnich latach nanostrukturalne hydrożele i nanocząstki metalowe pokryte śluzem są intensywnie wykorzystywane jako istotne nośniki dostarczania różnych składników hydrofilowych i hydrofobowych [ 14]]. Do formułowania nanohydrożelu można stosować różne rodzaje biopolimerów i polimerów sieciujących, a śluz może działać jako główny biopolimer lub składnik sieciujący do formułowania nanohydrożelu [ 15 ]. Opublikowano kilka raportów na temat formułowania stabilnych nanohydrożeli przy użyciu śluzu jako składnika aktywnego, a naukowcy ujawnili różne zastosowania terapeutyczne i spożywcze sformułowanych nanohydrożeli [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17]. Ponadto nanohydrożele formułowane ze śluzem wykazują wyższą stabilność niż inne konwencjonalne biopolimery pochodzenia roślinnego. Ponadto nanocząsteczki metali pokryte polimerowymi węglowodanami, takimi jak skrobia, dekstran, chitozan i śluz, są najczęściej stosowanymi nanonośnikami do ukierunkowanego dostarczania leków. Ponieważ oprócz wydłużania czasu krążenia poprzez ukrywanie ich przed układem odpornościowym, ich polimerowe otoczki umożliwiają im przenoszenie i uwalnianie leku podczas biodegradacji [ 16 , 17 ].

Plant-derived polymers have attained high demand in food and other industries due to their diverse industrial applications such as film coating, emulsifier, binder, and gelling agents, therefore they are excessively used in the textile industry, paper industry, and cosmetic industry [1][2]. Nowadays, due to the hazardous effect of synthetic polymers on human health, people showed major interest in plant-based naturally derived biopolymers (gums, mucilage, cellulose, and glucans) as an effective ingredient for the formulation of eco-friendly, sustainable, cost-effective products [3]. Moreover, a large number of polysaccharides can also be biosynthetically fabricated by several living organisms including plants, algae, animals, bacteria, and fungi [4]. Also, natural polysaccharides are used in the food industry as they are regarded as safe for human consumption [5]. Among various polysaccharides, plant-originated mucilage is widely used in various food industries due to its valuable broad-spectrum applications [6]. Generally, mucilage can be obtained from several plants or their different parts such as Aloe vera, Salvia hispanica seeds, Cordia dichotoma, Basella alba, Plantago psyllium, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Cactaceae, Abelmoschus esculentus, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Moringa Oleifera, and Linum usitatissimum. Plant-derived mucilage, due to its distinctive health (anticancer, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition extends to diabetes, and immunity stimulation) and food properties, is widely used as an active ingredient for the formulation of pharmaceutics, functional, and nutraceutical products [7]. Structurally, mucilage (a complex of polymeric polysaccharide) is mainly composed of carbohydrates with highly branched structures that consist of monomer units of L-arabinose, D-xylose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, and galacturonic acid. They also contain glycoproteins and different bioactive components such as tannins, alkaloids, and steroids [8][9][10]. Also, mucilage produces an indefinite number of monosaccharides on hydrolysis, depending on the type of hydrolysis products obtained due to the nature of the polysaccharide. It can also further classify into pentose sugars (xylan) and hexose sugars (cellulose and starch) and can be considered as gum like components due to their similar physiological properties. However, both mucilage and gum are mostly related to hemicelluloses in composition, except the sugars produced by hemicelluloses such as xylose, glucose, and mannose instead of sugars produced by the gums such as galactose and arabinose [11][12]. Moreover, that can be utilized in several applications such as edible coating, wound healing, tablet formation, encapsulation, water purification, and various nanocarriers. Mucilage exhibits an excellent functional property, however, due to the hydrogen bonding in between different functional and other polar groups, they also have an important role in film, emulsion, coated metal nanoparticles, and gel formation [13]. In recent years, nanostructured hydrogels and mucilage coated metal nanoparticles are intensively used as a significant delivery vehicle for various hydrophilic and hydrophobic components [14]. For the formulation of nanohydrogel, different types of biopolymers and cross-linking polymers can be used and mucilage can act as either a primary biopolymer or a cross-linking component for the formulation of nanohydrogel [15]. Several reports have been published on the formulation of stable nanohydrogels using mucilage as an active component and researchers revealed various therapeutic and food applications of the formulated nanohydrogels [11][12][13][14][15][16][17]. Furthermore, nanohydrogels formulated with mucilage exhibit higher stability than that of other conventional plant-based biopolymers. Furthermore, metal nanoparticles coated with polymeric carbohydrates such as starch, dextran, chitosan, and mucilage are the most abundant nanocarriers used for targeted drug delivery. Because, in addition to increasing blood circulation time by hiding them from the immune system, their polymeric shells enable them to transfer and release the drug during biodegradation [16][17].

2. Nanonośniki oparte na śluzie i ich zastosowanieMucilage Based Nanocarriers and Their Application

Nowadays, synthetic and non-synthetic polymers have been successfully used for the formation of a hydrogel, but plant-derived (synthetic) polymers such as proteins, polysaccharides, and polypeptides are the most preferable choice, because of their extensive use of applications. Mucilage has an excellent potential to synthesize hydrogels because of its hydrophilicity, safety, and biodegradability. Hydrogels are hydrophilic and polymeric 3D material, which retains diffusive transport of liquids as well as also retains cohesive property of solids. They have attained high demand for technologists and researchers due to their extensive range of applications. The first synthetic hydrogel was prepared in 1960. Moreover, hydrogels from the plant-derived polymers are in high demand due to the presence of functional groups such as sulfate, amide, hydroxyl, and carboxylic which increases their swelling and water holding capacity, they are also interconnected with elasticity, and microscopic pores. There are many stimuli factors such as (pH, temperature, and electric field) [120][18]. There are generally two methods (physical and chemical crosslinking) that are used for the formation of hydrogel along with the principles of crosslinking of a polymer chain. The chemical crosslinking method includes the creation of new covalent bonds with the hydrogel’s polymer chain, while physical interaction can be also present between the polymer chain of the hydrogel. Both chemical and physical crosslinking methods can be applied for the synthesize of hydrogel from the plant-derived polymers (gum and mucilage) [121][19]. The formation of a nanohydrogel is explained in Figure 51. These characteristics increase the value of hydrogel as an applicant in food, pharma, and several industries [122][20].
Figure 51. Synthesis of nanohydrogel using plant-based mucilage as an effective biopolymer.
The characterization of hydrogels is dependent upon the cross-linking (physical or chemical) measures during the formulation of the gel. Nanohydrogel is mostly similar to a normal hydrogel, which can be defined as a three-dimensional network of hydrophilic material (e.g., polysaccharide) with a diameter of less than 100 nm. Nanoparticulates have many benefits when compared to micro and macrocategorization in food and several other industries. The term nanohydrogel was first introduced to describe the cross-linking and networking of poly-anions [123][21]. They are used in several applications such as wound healing, drug delivery, vaccine delivery, the enhancement of film properties, and enzyme immobilization [124,125][22][23]. Mucilage-based hydrogels containing nanocomposites form a 3D network of extreme porosity, which allows a large absorption of food or drugs in water [126][24]. Nanocomposites are divided into three classes: ceramic matrix nanocomposites, polymer matrix nanocomposites, and metal matrix nanocomposites. They are chosen related to macro and microcomposites due to their excellent potential properties such as mechanical, barrier, and optical characteristics. The characterization of mucilage-based nanohydrogel can be performed through different methods such as field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) [127][25]. The mucilage-based hydrogels can act as a protector, which prevents active ingredients from degradation, oxidation, and destruction, and also has several applications in water purification, drug delivery, the food industry, tissue engineering, and agriculture. Nanomaterials improve the barrier and mechanical aspects of food packages, and other developments for intelligent and active applications in the food industry [91][26]. Polymers containing hydrophilic groups such as -COOH, -OH, -CONH-, -SO3H, and -CONH2 interact with each other. Nanohydrogels are responsible for several stimuli such as temperature, electromagnetic field, pH, ionic strength, and light. Moreover, mucilage-based nanohydrogel is mostly utilized for the preparation of the edible coatings of edible films, and it is estimated that high mucilage-containing seeds or fruits are a good source of edible gum and can be used for various applications [122][20]. Nanohydrogels combine the great characteristics of hydrogels, such as absorption capacity, hydrophilicity, flexibility, great water holding capacity, with the advantages of nanoparticles, allowing for obtaining better dispersion in food packaging material and decreasing the number of bioactive compounds to be applied [128][27]. Plant-derived mucilage-based nanohydrogels are in great demand due to their unique properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, stimuli-responsive properties, and biological characteristics, making them a good material for selection in diverse applications. Furthermore, nanohydrogels have potential applications such as controlled drug delivery, biomimetic materials, and biological or chemical sensors. Nowadays, nanotechnology plays a very important role in drug delivery systems, food applications, and water purification [129][28]. Therefore, nanoparticles (magnetic and non-magnetic), nanofibers, nanocomposites, and nanoencapsulation are widely used as nanocarriers in various industrial applications, such as for the controlled delivery of drugs, the removal of dye, and the development of film, which are highlighted in Table 51.
Table 51. Application of seed mucilage with various nanocarriers.
Seed Mucilage Nanocarrier Applications References
Basil seed mucilage Magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3O4) Application for the controlled delivery of antibiotic (Cephalexin) [130][29]
Cress seed mucilage Nanofibers Application for the delivery of vitamin A [18][30]
Quince seed mucilage Zinc oxide nanoparticles Application for photocatalytic dye degradation [131][31]
Quince seed mucilage Magnetic nanocomposites Application for removal of cationic dyes from the aqueous solutions [132][32]
Basil seed mucilage Zinc based magnetic bio nanocomposites Application for removal of azo anionic and cationic dyes from the aqueous solutions [133][33]
Okra seed mucilage Zinc oxide nanoparticles Application for nanocomposites-based films [91][26]
Basil seed mucilage ZnO nanocomposites Application for wound healing [68][34]
Chia seed mucilage Nanoencapsulation Application as wall material [115][35]
Moreover, Rayegan et al. [130] synthesized magnetic FeMoreover, Rayegan et al. [29] synthesized magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles coated with basil seed mucilage for the application of the controlled drug delivery of an antibiotic (cephalexin). The sample was characterized using XRD, FTIR, TEM, FESEM, and VSM. One-hundred and fifty magnetic nanoparticles were randomly selected for FESEM, which showed that the mean size of the nanoparticles was 6 nm and 12 nm, with 0.25 and 0.28 PDI values, respectively. Moreover, the antibacterial efficacy was evaluated by the disk diffusion method, and it was observed that there were no negative effects on the performance of drugs or on the structure by the loading of cephalexin onto the basil seed mucilage-coated magnetic nanoparticles. Moreover, it also increased the antibacterial properties of cephalexin. Consequently, Mohammadi et al. [91] nanoprzygotowali filmy nanokompozytowe na bazie śluzu okry (OM), karboksymetylocelulozy (CMC) i nanocząstek ZnO oraz ocenili ich właściwości antybakteryjne i fizykomechanicznearticles coated with basil seed mucilage for the application of the controlled drug delivery of an antibiotic (cephalexin). The sample was characterized using XRD, FTIR, TEM, FESEM, and VSM. One-hundred and fifty magnetic nanoparticles were randomly selected for FESEM, which showed that the mean size of the nanoparticles was 6 nm and 12 nm, with 0.25 and 0.28 PDI values, respectively. Moreover, the antibacterial efficacy was evaluated by the disk diffusion method, and it was observed that there were no negative effects on the performance of drugs or on the structure by the loading of cephalexin onto the basil seed mucilage-coated magnetic nanoparticles. WMoreover, it swoich badaniach wykorzystali różne also increased the antibacterial properties of cephalexin. Consequently, Mohammadi et al. [26] prepared nanocoporcje śluzu okry i karboksymetylocelulozy (odpowiednio mposite films based on okra mucilage (OM), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and ZnO nanoparticles, and evaluated their antibacterial and physicomechanical properties. In their study, they used different proportions of okra mucilage and carboxymethylcellulose (0/100, 30/70, 40/60 i, and 50/50)., Zaobreserwowano kolorowe filmy przy wysokim poziomie nanocząstek ZnO i śluzu okry.pectively). Colored films were observed with high levels of ZnO nanoparticles and okra mucilage. Moreover, Ponadto dzięki dodatkowi śluzu zwiększono wytrzymałość na rozciąganie i zmniejszono wydłużenie przy zerwaniu poprzez wprowadzenie nanocząstek ZnO do folii karboksymetylocelulozowejue to the addition of mucilage, tensile strength was increased and elongation at the break value was decreased by the incorporation of ZnO nanoparticles into carboxy methylcellulose film.
 

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