Diagnosis of Herpes Simplex Virus: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Conner Chen and Version 1 by Peuli Nath.

Herpes is a widespread viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) that has no permanent cure to date. There are two subtypes, HSV-1 and HSV-2, that are known to cause a variety of symptoms, ranging from acute to chronic. HSV is highly contagious and can be transmitted via any type of physical contact. Additionally, viral shedding can also happen from asymptomatic infections. Thus, early and accurate detection of HSV is needed to prevent the transmission of this infection. Herpes can be diagnosed in two ways, by either detecting the presence of the virus in lesions or the antibodies in the blood. Different detection techniques are available based on both laboratory and point of care (POC) devices. Laboratory techniques include different biochemical assays, microscopy, and nucleic acid amplification. In contrast, POC techniques include microfluidics-based tests that enable on-spot testing.

  • herpes simplex virus
  • detection
  • diagnostics
  • point-of-care devices
  • microfluidics
  • imaging and microscopy
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Johnston, C.; Corey, L. Current Concepts for Genital Herpes Simplex Virus Infection: Diagnostics and Pathogenesis of Genital Tract Shedding. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2016, 29, 149–161.
  2. Whitley, R.; Baines, J. Clinical management of herpes simplex virus infections: Past, present, and future. F1000Research 2018, 7. F1000 Faculty Rev-1726.
  3. Crimi, S.; Fiorillo, L.; Bianchi, A.; D’Amico, C.; Amoroso, G.; Gorassini, F.; Mastroieni, R.; Marino, S.; Scoglio, C.; Catalano, F.; et al. Herpes Virus, Oral Clinical Signs and QoL: Systematic Review of Recent Data. Viruses 2019, 11, 463.
  4. Xu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Q. Characteristics of herpes simplex virus infection and pathogenesis suggest a strategy for vaccine development. Rev. Med. Virol. 2019, 29, e2054.
  5. Arvin, A.; Campadelli-Fiume, G.; Mocarski, E.; Moore, P.S.; Roizman, B.; Whitley, R.; Yamanishi, K. Human Herpesviruses: Biology, Therapy, and Immunoprophylaxis; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007.
  6. Weiss, H. Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in the developing world. Herpes 2004, 11 (Suppl. 1), 24A–35A.
  7. Gaydos, C.; Hardick, J. Point of care diagnostics for sexually transmitted infections: Perspectives and advances. Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 2014, 12, 657–672.
  8. James, C.; Harfouche, M.; Welton, N.J.; Turner, K.M.E.; Abu-Raddad, L.J.; Gottlieb, S.L.; Looker, K.J. Herpes simplex virus: Global infection prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016. Bull. World Health Organ. 2020, 98, 315–329.
  9. Looker, K.J.; Welton, N.J.; Sabin, K.M.; Dalal, S.; Vickerman, P.; Turner, K.M.E.; Boily, M.C.; Gottlieb, S.L. Global and regional estimates of the contribution of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection to HIV incidence: A population attributable fraction analysis using published epidemiological data. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 240–249.
  10. Smith, G. Herpesvirus transport to the nervous system and back again. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2012, 66, 153–176.
  11. Smith, G.A.; Gross, S.P.; Enquist, L.W. Herpesviruses use bidirectional fast-axonal transport to spread in sensory neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 3466–3470.
  12. Chew, T.; Taylor, K.E.; Mossman, K.L. Innate and adaptive immune responses to herpes simplex virus. Viruses 2009, 1, 979–1002.
  13. Ike, A.C.; Onu, C.J.; Ononugbo, C.M.; Reward, E.E.; Muo, S.O. Immune Response to Herpes Simplex Virus Infection and Vaccine Development. Vaccines 2020, 8, 302.
  14. Nash, A.A.; Cambouropoulos, P. The immune response to herpes simplex virus. Semin. Virol. 1993, 4, 181–186.
  15. Suazo, P.A.; Tognarelli, E.I.; Kalergis, A.M.; González, P.A. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection: Molecular association with HIV and novel microbicides to prevent disease. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 2015, 204, 161–176.
  16. Aoki, F.Y. Management of genital herpes in HIV-infected patients. Herpes 2001, 8, 41–45.
  17. Cherpes, T.L.; Matthews, D.B.; Maryak, S.A. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 2012, 55, 938–944.
  18. Kimberlin, D.W. Neonatal herpes simplex infection. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004, 17, 1–13.
  19. Ayoub, H.H.; Chemaitelly, H.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Epidemiological Impact of Novel Preventive and Therapeutic HSV-2 Vaccination in the United States: Mathematical Modeling Analyses. Vaccines 2020, 8, 366.
  20. Razonable, R.R. Antiviral drugs for viruses other than human immunodeficiency virus. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2011, 86, 1009–1026.
  21. Munday, P.E.; Vuddamalay, J.; Slomka, M.J.; Brown, D.W. Role of type specific herpes simplex virus serology in the diagnosis and management of genital herpes. Sex. Transm. Infect. 1998, 74, 175–178.
  22. Kozel, T.R.; Burnham-Marusich, A.R. Point-of-Care Testing for Infectious Diseases: Past, Present, and Future. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2017, 55, 2313–2320.
  23. Philip, S.S.; Ahrens, K.; Shayevich, C.; de la Roca, R.; Williams, M.; Wilson, D.; Bernstein, K.; Klausner, J.D. Evaluation of a New Point-of-Care Serologic Assay for Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 47, e79–e82.
  24. Laderman, E.I.; Whitworth, E.; Dumaual, E.; Jones, M.; Hudak, A.; Hogrefe, W.; Carney, J.; Groen, J. Rapid, sensitive, and specific lateral-flow immunochromatographic point-of-care device for detection of herpes simplex virus type 2-specific immunoglobulin G antibodies in serum and whole blood. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2008, 15, 159–163.
  25. Singh, A.; Preiksaitis, J.; Ferenczy, A.; Romanowski, B. The laboratory diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections. Can. J. Infect. Dis. Med. Microbiol. 2005, 16, 92–98.
  26. Anderson, N.W.; Buchan, B.W.; Ledeboer, N.A. Light microscopy, culture, molecular, and serologic methods for detection of herpes simplex virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2014, 52, 2–8.
  27. Kessler, H.H.; Mühlbauer, G.; Rinner, B.; Stelzl, E.; Berger, A.; Dörr, H.-W.; Santner, B.; Marth, E.; Rabenau, H. Detection of Herpes Simplex Virus DNA by Real-Time PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 38, 2638–2642.
  28. Kaneko, H.; Iida, T.; Aoki, K.; Ohno, S.; Suzutani, T. Sensitive and rapid detection of herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus DNA by loop-mediated isothermal amplification. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005, 43, 3290–3296.
  29. Katz, D.; Hilliard, J.K.; Mirkovic, R.R.; Word, R.A. ELISA for detection of IgG and IgM antibodies to HSV-1 and HSV-2 in human sera. J. Virol. Methods 1986, 14, 43–55.
  30. Ashley, R.L.; Militoni, J.; Lee, F.; Nahmias, A.; Corey, L. Comparison of Western blot (immunoblot) and glycoprotein G-specific immunodot enzyme assay for detecting antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 in human sera. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1988, 26, 662–667.
  31. Pouletty, P.; Chomel, J.J.; Thouvenot, D.; Catalan, F.; Rabillon, V.; Kadouche, J. Detection of herpes simplex virus in direct specimens by immunofluorescence assay using a monoclonal antibody. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1987, 25, 958–959.
  32. Olivo, P.D. Detection of herpes simplex virus by measurement of luciferase activity in an infected-cell lysate. J. Virol. Methods 1994, 47, 117–128.
  33. LeGoff, J.; Péré, H.; Bélec, L. Diagnosis of genital herpes simplex virus infection in the clinical laboratory. Virol. J. 2014, 11, 83.
  34. Morgan, C.; Rose, H.M.; Mednis, B. Electron microscopy of herpes simplex virus. I. Entry. J. Virol. 1968, 2, 507–516.
  35. Folkers, E.; Vreeswijk, J.; Oranje, A.P.; Wagenaar, F.; Duivenvoorden, J.N. Improved detection of HSV by electron microscopy in clinical specimens using ultracentrifugation and colloidal gold immunoelectron microscopy: Comparison with viral culture and cytodiagnosis. J. Virol. Methods 1991, 34, 273–289.
  36. Ray, A.; Daloglu, M.U.; Ho, J.; Torres, A.; Mcleod, E.; Ozcan, A. Computational sensing of herpes simplex virus using a cost-effective on-chip microscope. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 4856.
  37. Koenig, M.; Reynolds, K.S.; Aldous, W.; Hickman, M. Comparison of Light-Cycler PCR, enzyme immunoassay, and tissue culture for detection of herpes simplex virus. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2001, 40, 107–110.
  38. Slinger, R.; Amrud, K.; Sant, N.; Ramotar, K.; Desjardins, M. A comparison of the Quidel Solana HSV 1 + 2/VZV Assay, the Focus Diagnostics Simplexa HSV 1 & 2 Direct Assay and the Luminex Aries HSV 1&2 Assay for detection of herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 from swab specimens. J. Clin. Virol. 2019, 113, 35–38.
  39. Al-Shobaili, H.; Hassanein, K.M.; Mostafa, M.S.; Al Duways, A.S. Evaluation of the HerpeSelect Express rapid test in the detection of herpes simplex virus type 2 antibodies in patients with genital ulcer disease. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 2015, 29, 43–46.
  40. Kim, H.-J.; Tong, Y.; Tang, W.; Quimson, L.; Cope, V.A.; Pan, X.; Motre, A.; Kong, R.; Hong, J.; Kohn, D.; et al. A rapid and simple isothermal nucleic acid amplification test for detection of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. J. Clin. Virol. 2011, 50, 26–30.
  41. Morrow, R.A.; Friedrich, D.; Meier, A.; Corey, L. Use of “biokit HSV-2 Rapid Assay” to improve the positive predictive value of Focus HerpeSelect HSV-2 ELISA. BMC Infect. Dis. 2005, 5, 84.
  42. Daaboul, G.G.; Freedman, D.S.; Scherr, S.M.; Carter, E.; Rosca, A.; Bernstein, D.; Mire, C.E.; Agans, K.N.; Hoenen, T.; Geisbert, T.W.; et al. Enhanced light microscopy visualization of virus particles from Zika virus to filamentous ebolaviruses. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0179728.
  43. Solomon, A.R.; Rasmussen, J.E.; Varani, J.; Pierson, C.L. The Tzanck smear in the diagnosis of cutaneous herpes simplex. JAMA 1984, 251, 633–635.
  44. Kelly, B.; Shimoni, T. Reintroducing the Tzanck Smear. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2009, 10, 141–152.
  45. Eksomtramage, T.; Aiempanakit, K. Recurrent extragenital herpes simplex type 2 occurring in a distal location of the same dermatome. IDCases 2020, 21, e00783.
  46. Nahass, G.T.; Mandel, M.J.; Cook, S.; Fan, W.; Leonardi, C.L. Detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster infection from cutaneous lesions in different clinical stages with the polymerase chain reaction. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 1995, 32, 730–733.
  47. Nahass, G.T.; Goldstein, B.A.; Zhu, W.Y.; Serfling, U.; Penneys, N.S.; Leonardi, C.L. Comparison of Tzanck smear, viral culture, and DNA diagnostic methods in detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster infection. JAMA 1992, 268, 2541–2544.
  48. Yamamoto, T.; Aoyama, Y. Detection of multinucleated giant cells in differentiated keratinocytes with herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus infections by modified Tzanck smear method. J. Dermatol. 2021, 48, 21–27.
  49. Li, C.; Li, Y.; Yang, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhu, C.; Tang, S.; Pang, C.; Tang, W.; Cai, Q.; Li, Z.; et al. The Detection and Characterization of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Confirmed Measles Cases. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 12785.
  50. Zhao, L.S.; Landry, M.L.; Balkovic, E.S.; Hsiung, G.D. Impact of cell culture sensitivity and virus concentration on rapid detection of herpes simplex virus by cytopathic effects and immunoperoxidase staining. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1987, 25, 1401–1405.
  51. Jerome, K.R.; Morrow, R.A. Herpes Simplex Virus. In Manual of Clinical Microbiology; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2015.
  52. Moore, D.F. Comparison of human fibroblast cells and primary rabbit kidney cells for isolation of herpes simplex virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1984, 19, 548–549.
  53. Witte, R.; Andriasyan, V.; Georgi, F.; Yakimovich, A.; Greber, U.F. Concepts in Light Microscopy of Viruses. Viruses 2018, 10, 202.
  54. Marie, D.; Brussaard, C.P.D.; Thyrhaug, R.; Bratbak, G.; Vaulot, D. Enumeration of marine viruses in culture and natural samples by flow cytometry. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1999, 65, 45–52.
  55. Parveen, N.; Borrenberghs, D.; Rocha, S.; Hendrix, J. Single Viruses on the Fluorescence Microscope: Imaging Molecular Mobility, Interactions and Structure Sheds New Light on Viral Replication. Viruses 2018, 10, 250.
  56. Hoffmann, A.B.; Mazelier, M.; Léger, P.; Lozach, P.-Y. Deciphering Virus Entry with Fluorescently Labeled Viral Particles BT—Influenza Virus: Methods and Protocols. In Influenza Virus; Yamauchi, Y., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 159–183. ISBN 9781493986781.
  57. Nikolic, D.; Kohn, D.; Yen-Lieberman, B.; Procop, G.W. Detection of Herpes Simplex Virus and Varicella-Zoster Virus by Traditional and Multiplex Molecular Methods. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 2019, 151, 122–126.
  58. Chan, E.L.; Brandt, K.; Horsman, G.B. Comparison of Chemicon SimulFluor Direct Fluorescent Antibody Staining with Cell Culture and Shell Vial Direct Immunoperoxidase Staining for Detection of Herpes Simplex Virus and with Cytospin Direct Immunofluorescence Staining for Detection of Varicella-Zoster Virus. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 2001, 8, 909–912.
  59. Lafferty, W.E.; Krofft, S.; Remington, M.; Giddings, R.; Winter, C.; Cent, A.; Corey, L. Diagnosis of herpes simplex virus by direct immunofluorescence and viral isolation from samples of external genital lesions in a high-prevalence population. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1987, 25, 323–326.
  60. Fan, F.; Day, S.; Lu, X.; Tang, Y.-W. Laboratory diagnosis of HSV and varicella zoster virus infections. Future Virol. 2014, 9, 721–731.
  61. Patwardhan, V.; Bhalla, P.; Rawat, D.; Garg, V.K.; Sardana, K.; Sethi, S. A Comparative Analysis of Polymerase Chain Reaction and Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test for Diagnosis of Genital Herpes. J. Lab. Physicians 2017, 9, 53–56.
  62. Muller, W.J.; Zheng, X. Laboratory Diagnosis of Neonatal Herpes Simplex Virus Infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2019, 57, e01460-18.
  63. Caviness, A.C.; Oelze, L.L.; Saz, U.E.; Greer, J.M.; Demmler-Harrison, G.J. Direct immunofluorescence assay compared to cell culture for the diagnosis of mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infections in children. J. Clin. Virol. Off. Publ. Pan Am. Soc. Clin. Virol. 2010, 49, 58–60.
  64. Miller, S.E.; Levenson, R.M.; Aldridge, C.; Hester, S.; Kenan, D.J.; Howell, D.N. Identification of focal viral infections by confocal microscopy for subsequent ultrastructural analysis. Ultrastruct. Pathol. 1997, 21, 183–193.
  65. Müller, R.T.; Pourmirzaie, R.; Pavan-Langston, D.; Cavalcanti, B.M.; Aggarwal, S.; Colón, C.; Jamali, A.; Cruzat, A.; Hamrah, P. In Vivo Confocal Microscopy Demonstrates Bilateral Loss of Endothelial Cells in Unilateral Herpes Simplex Keratitis. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2015, 56, 4899–4906.
  66. Hillenaar, T.; Wubbels, R.; Weenen, C.; Remeijer, L. Endothelial Involvement in Herpes Simplex Virus Keratitis: An in vivo Confocal Microscopy Study. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49, 2808.
  67. Cinotti, E.; Perrot, J.L.; Labeille, B.; Campolmi, N.; Thuret, G.; Naigeon, N.; Bourlet, T.; Pillet, S.; Cambazard, F. First identification of the herpes simplex virus by skin-dedicated ex vivo fluorescence confocal microscopy during herpetic skin infections. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2015, 40, 421–425.
  68. Howell, D.N.; Miller, S.E. Identification of viral infection by confocal microscopy. Methods Enzymol. 1999, 307, 573–591.
  69. Debarbieux, S.; Depaepe, L.; Poulalhon, N.; Dalle, S.; Balme, B.; Thomas, L. Reflectance confocal microscopy characteristics of eight cases of pustular eruptions and histopathological correlations. Ski. Res. Technol. 2013, 19, e444–e452.
  70. Levine, A.; Markowitz, O. Introduction to reflectance confocal microscopy and its use in clinical practice. JAAD Case Rep. 2018, 4, 1014–1023.
  71. Folkers, E.; Vreeswijk, J.; Oranje, A.P.; Duivenvoorden, J.N. Rapid diagnosis in varicella and herpes zoster: Re-evaluation of direct smear (Tzanck test) and electron microscopy including colloidal gold immuno-electron microscopy in comparison with virus isolation. Br. J. Dermatol. 1989, 121, 287–296.
  72. Goldsmith, C.S.; Miller, S.E. Modern Uses of Electron Microscopy for Detection of Viruses. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2009, 22, 552–563.
  73. Vreeswijk, J.; Folkers, E.; Wagenaar, F.; Kapsenberg, J.G. The use of colloidal gold immunoelectron microscopy to diagnose varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infections by rapid discrimination between VZV, HSV-1 and HSV-2. J. Virol. Methods 1988, 22, 255–271.
  74. Greenbaum, A.; Luo, W.; Su, T.-W.; Göröcs, Z.; Xue, L.; Isikman, S.O.; Coskun, A.F.; Mudanyali, O.; Ozcan, A. Imaging without lenses: Achievements and remaining challenges of wide-field on-chip microscopy. Nat. Methods 2012, 9, 889–895.
  75. Zhang, Y.; Ouyang, M.; Ray, A.; Liu, T.; Kong, J.; Bai, B.; Kim, D.; Guziak, A.; Luo, Y.; Feizi, A.; et al. Computational cytometer based on magnetically modulated coherent imaging and deep learning. Light Sci. Appl. 2019, 8, 91.
  76. Daloglu, M.U.; Ray, A.; Collazo, M.J.; Brown, C.; Tseng, D.; Chocarro-Ruiz, B.; Lechuga, L.M.; Cascio, D.; Ozcan, A. Low-cost and portable UV holographic microscope for high-contrast protein crystal imaging. APL Photonics 2019, 4, 30804.
  77. Daloglu, M.U.; Ray, A.; Gorocs, Z.; Xiong, M.; Malik, R.; Bitan, G.; McLeod, E.; Ozcan, A. Computational On-Chip Imaging of Nanoparticles and Biomolecules using Ultraviolet Light. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 44157.
  78. Ray, A.; Li, S.; Segura, T.; Ozcan, A. High-Throughput Quantification of Nanoparticle Degradation Using Computational Microscopy and Its Application to Drug Delivery Nanocapsules. ACS Photonics 2017, 4, 1216–1224.
  79. Ozcan, A.; McLeod, E. Lensless Imaging and Sensing. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2016, 18, 77–102.
  80. McLeod, E.; Ozcan, A. Unconventional methods of imaging: Computational microscopy and compact implementations. Rep. Prog. Phys. 2016, 79, 76001.
  81. Ray, A.; Khalid, M.A.; Demčenko, A.; Daloglu, M.; Tseng, D.; Reboud, J.; Cooper, J.M.; Ozcan, A. Holographic detection of nanoparticles using acoustically actuated nanolenses. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 171.
  82. Wu, Y.; Ray, A.; Wei, Q.; Feizi, A.; Tong, X.; Chen, E.; Luo, Y.; Ozcan, A. Deep Learning Enables High-Throughput Analysis of Particle-Aggregation-Based Biosensors Imaged Using Holography. ACS Photonics 2019, 6, 294–301.
  83. Wu, Y.; Ray, A.; Wei, Q.; Feizi, A.; Tong, X.; Chen, E.; Luo, Y.; Ozcan, A. Particle-Aggregation Based Virus Sensor Using Deep Learning and Lensless Digital Holography. In Proceedings of the Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, San Jose, CA, USA, 9–14 May 2019; p. ATu4K.3.
  84. Storch, G.A.; Reed, C.A.; Dalu, Z.A. Evaluation of a latex agglutination test for herpes simplex virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1988, 26, 787–788.
  85. Lee, S.F.; Pepose, J.S. Sandwich enzyme immunoassay and latex agglutination test for herpes simplex virus keratitis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1990, 28, 785–786.
  86. Smalley, D.L.; Dunn, C.E. Evaluation of a new latex agglutination method for detection of antibody to Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Lab. Med. 1990, 21, 661–662.
  87. Kowalski, R.P.; Gordon, Y.J. Evaluation of Immunologlic Tests for the Detection of Ocular Herpes Simplex Virus. Ophthalmology 1989, 96, 1583–1586.
  88. Carter, M.; Shieh, J.C. Chapter 14—Biochemical Assays and Intracellular Signaling. In Guide to Research Techniques in Neuroscience; Carter, M., Shieh, J.C., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 297–329. ISBN 9780123748492.
  89. López Roa, P.; Alonso, R.; de Egea, V.; Usubillaga, R.; Muñoz, P.; Bouza, E. PCR for detection of herpes simplex virus in cerebrospinal fluid: Alternative acceptance criteria for diagnostic workup. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2013, 51, 2880–2883.
  90. Gardella, C.; Huang, M.-L.; Wald, A.; Magaret, A.; Selke, S.; Morrow, R.; Corey, L. Rapid polymerase chain reaction assay to detect herpes simplex virus in the genital tract of women in labor. Obstet. Gynecol. 2010, 115, 1209–1216.
  91. Wald, A.; Huang, M.-L.; Carrell, D.; Selke, S.; Corey, L. Polymerase Chain Reaction for Detection of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) DNA on Mucosal Surfaces: Comparison with HSV Isolation in Cell Culture. J. Infect. Dis. 2003, 188, 1345–1351.
  92. Scoular, A.; Gillespie, G.; Carman, W.F. Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of genital herpes in a genitourinary medicine clinic. Sex. Transm. Infect. 2002, 78, 21–25.
  93. Kimura, H.; Futamura, M.; Kito, H.; Ando, T.; Goto, M.; Kuzushima, K.; Shibata, M.; Morishima, T. Detection of Viral DNA in Neonatal Herpes Simplex Virus Infections: Frequent and Prolonged Presence in Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid. J. Infect. Dis. 1991, 164, 289–293.
  94. Malm, G.; Forsgren, M. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infections: HSV DNA in cerebrospinal fluid and serum. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1999, 81, F24–F29.
  95. Golden, W.C. Polymerase chain reaction in neonatal HSV encephalitis: An assay to count on? J. Perinatol. 2009, 29, 259–261.
  96. Kimberlin, D.W.; Lakeman, F.D.; Arvin, A.M.; Prober, C.G.; Corey, L.; Powell, D.A.; Burchett, S.K.; Jacobs, R.F.; Starr, S.E.; Whitley, R.J. Application of the polymerase chain reaction to the diagnosis and management of neonatal herpes simplex virus disease. J. Infect. Dis. 1996, 174, 1162–1167.
  97. Strick, L.B.; Wald, A. Diagnostics for Herpes Simplex Virus. Mol. Diagn. Ther. 2006, 10, 17–28.
  98. Espy, M.J.; Uhl, J.R.; Sloan, L.M.; Buckwalter, S.P.; Jones, M.F.; Vetter, E.A.; Yao, J.D.C.; Wengenack, N.L.; Rosenblatt, J.E.; Cockerill, F.R., 3rd; et al. Real-time PCR in clinical microbiology: Applications for routine laboratory testing. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2006, 19, 165–256.
  99. Deepak, S.; Kottapalli, K.; Rakwal, R.; Oros, G.; Rangappa, K.; Iwahashi, H.; Masuo, Y.; Agrawal, G. Real-Time PCR: Revolutionizing Detection and Expression Analysis of Genes. Curr. Genom. 2007, 8, 234–251.
  100. Schremser, V.; Antoniewicz, L.; Tschachler, E.; Geusau, A. Polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of herpesvirus infections in dermatology. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 2020, 132, 35–41.
  101. Pandori, M.W.; Lei, J.; Wong, E.H.; Klausner, J.; Liska, S. Real-Time PCR for detection of herpes simplex virus without nucleic acid extraction. BMC Infect. Dis. 2006, 6, 104.
  102. Van, T.T.; Mongkolrattanothai, K.; Arevalo, M.; Lustestica, M.; Dien Bard, J. Impact of a Rapid Herpes Simplex Virus PCR Assay on Duration of Acyclovir Therapy. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2017, 55, 1557–1565.
  103. Tang, Y.W.; Mitchell, P.S.; Espy, M.J.; Smith, T.F.; Persing, D.H. Molecular diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections in the central nervous system. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1999, 37, 2127–2136.
  104. Mejías, A.; Bustos, R.; Ardura, M.I.; Ramírez, C.; Sánchez, P.J. Persistence of herpes simplex virus DNA in cerebrospinal fluid of neonates with herpes simplex virus encephalitis. J. Perinatol. 2009, 29, 290–296.
  105. Druce, J.; Catton, M.; Chibo, D.; Minerds, K.; Tyssen, D.; Kostecki, R.; Maskill, B.; Leong-Shaw, W.; Gerrard, M.; Birch, C. Utility of a multiplex PCR assay for detecting herpesvirus DNA in clinical samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2002, 40, 1728–1732.
  106. Marshall, D.S.; Linfert, D.R.; Draghi, A.; McCarter, Y.S.; Tsongalis, G.J. Identification of Herpes Simplex Virus Genital Infection: Comparison of a Multiplex PCR Assay and Traditional Viral Isolation Techniques. Mod. Pathol. 2001, 14, 152–156.
  107. Yap, T.; Khor, S.; Kim, J.S.; Kim, J.; Kim, S.Y.; Kern, J.S.; Martyres, R.; Varigos, G.; Chan, H.T.; McCullough, M.J.; et al. Intraoral human herpes viruses detectable by PCR in majority of patients. Oral Dis. 2021, 27, 378–387.
  108. Dominguez, S.R.; Pretty, K.; Hengartner, R.; Robinson, C.C. Comparison of Herpes Simplex Virus PCR with Culture for Virus Detection in Multisource Surface Swab Specimens from Neonates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2018, 56, e00632-18.
  109. Espy, M.J.; Uhl, J.R.; Mitchell, P.S.; Thorvilson, J.N.; Svien, K.A.; Wold, A.D.; Smith, T.F. Diagnosis of Herpes Simplex Virus Infections in the Clinical Laboratory by LightCycler PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 38, 795–799.
  110. Notomi, T.; Okayama, H.; Masubuchi, H.; Yonekawa, T.; Watanabe, K.; Amino, N.; Hase, T. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000, 28, E63.
  111. Smirnova, D.I.; Petrusha, O.A.; Gracheva, A.V.; Volynskaya, E.A.; Zverev, V.V.; Faizuloev, E.B. Rapid diagnostics of genital herpes by loop-mediated isothermal amplification method with fluorescent detection. J. Microbiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol. 2019, 40–46.
  112. Pourhossein, B.; Soleimanjahi, H.; Behzadian, F.; Khansarinejad, B. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) for the Rapid Diagnosis of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1). Iran. J. Virol. 2011, 5, 1–5.
  113. Enomoto, Y.; Yoshikawa, T.; Ihira, M.; Akimoto, S.; Miyake, F.; Usui, C.; Suga, S.; Suzuki, K.; Kawana, T.; Nishiyama, Y.; et al. Rapid Diagnosis of Herpes Simplex Virus Infection by a Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Method. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005, 43, 951–955.
  114. Reddy, A.K.; Balne, P.K.; Reddy, R.K.; Mathai, A.; Kaur, I. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the diagnosis of retinitis caused by herpes simplex virus-1. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2011, 17, 210–213.
  115. Gadkar, V.J.; Goldfarb, D.M.; Gantt, S.; Tilley, P.A.G. Real-time Detection and Monitoring of Loop Mediated Amplification (LAMP) Reaction Using Self-quenching and De-quenching Fluorogenic Probes. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 5548.
  116. Kinoshita, H.; Nakamichi, K.; Lim, C.-K.; Takayama-Ito, M.; Wang, L.; Iizuka, I.; Kurane, I.; Saijo, M. A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the detection and quantification of JC polyomavirus in cerebrospinal fluid: A diagnostic and clinical management tool and technique for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Virol. J. 2018, 15, 136.
  117. Becherer, L.; Borst, N.; Bakheit, M.; Frischmann, S.; Zengerle, R.; von Stetten, F. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)—Review and classification of methods for sequence-specific detection. Anal. Methods 2020, 12, 717–746.
  118. Kobayashi, T.; Yagami, A.; Suzuki, K.; Ihira, M.; Yoshikawa, T.; Matsunaga, K. Clinical utility of loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the diagnosis of common alpha herpesvirus skin infections. J. Dermatol. 2013, 40, 1033–1037.
  119. Rolando, J.C.; Jue, E.; Barlow, J.T.; Ismagilov, R.F. Real-time kinetics and high-resolution melt curves in single-molecule digital LAMP to differentiate and study specific and non-specific amplification. Nucleic Acids Res. 2020, 48, e42.
  120. Barreda-García, S.; Miranda-Castro, R.; de-los-Santos-Álvarez, N.; Miranda-Ordieres, A.J.; Lobo-Castañón, M.J. Helicase-dependent isothermal amplification: A novel tool in the development of molecular-based analytical systems for rapid pathogen detection. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2018, 410, 679–693.
  121. Teo, J.W.P.; Chiang, D.; Jureen, R.; Lin, R.T.P. Clinical evaluation of a helicase-dependant amplification (HDA)–based commercial assay for the simultaneous detection of HSV-1 and HSV-2. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2015, 83, 261–262.
  122. Lemieux, B.; Li, Y.; Kong, H.; Tang, Y.-W. Near instrument-free, simple molecular device for rapid detection of herpes simplex viruses. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2012, 12, 437–443.
  123. Miller, N.S.; Yen-Lieberman, B.; Poulter, M.D.; Tang, Y.-W.; Granato, P.A. Comparative clinical evaluation of the IsoAmp® HSV Assay with ELVIS® HSV culture/ID/typing test system for the detection of herpes simplex virus in genital and oral lesions. J. Clin. Virol. 2012, 54, 355–358.
  124. Granato, P.A.; Alkins, B.R.; Yen-Lieberman, B.; Greene, W.H.; Connolly, J.; Buchan, B.W.; Ledeboer, N.A. Comparative Evaluation of AmpliVue HSV 1 + 2 Assay with ELVIS Culture for Detecting Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 in Clinical Specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2015, 53, 3922–3925.
  125. Kowalski, R.P.; Karenchak, L.M.; Dhaliwal, D.K.; Mammen, A. AmpliVue Is a Practical and Timely Test for the Detection of HSV From Keratitis Specimens. Eye Contact Lens 2018, 44, S244–S248.
  126. Tong, Y.; McCarthy, K.; Kong, H.; Lemieux, B. Development and comparison of a rapid isothermal nucleic acid amplification test for typing of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 on a portable fluorescence detector. J. Mol. Diagn. 2012, 14, 569–576.
  127. Jevšnik, M.; Lusa, L.; Uršič, T.; Glinšek Biškup, U.; Petrovec, M. Detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster virus from skin lesions: Comparison of RT-PCR and isothermal amplification for rapid identification. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2020, 97, 115015.
  128. Kino, Y.; Minamishima, Y. Passive Hemagglutination Assays for the Detection of Antibodies to Herpes Viruses. Microbiol. Immunol. 1993, 37, 365–368.
  129. Trybala, E.; Bergström, T.; Olofsson, S.; Svennerholm, B.; Jeansson, S. An evaluation of a hemagglutination-inhibition test for the detection of antibodies to herpes simplex virus type 1. Clin. Diagn. Virol. 1995, 3, 191–201.
  130. Zweerink, H.J.; Corey, L. Virus-specific antibodies in sera from patients with genital herpes simplex virus infection. Infect. Immun. 1982, 37, 413–421.
  131. García-Cisneros, S.; Sánchez-Alemán, M.Á.; Conde-Glez, C.J.; Lara-Zaragoza, S.J.; Herrera-Ortiz, A.; Plett-Torres, T.; Olamendi-Portugal, M. Performance of ELISA and Western blot to detect antibodies against HSV-2 using dried blood spots. J. Infect. Public Health 2019, 12, 224–228.
  132. Martins, T.B.; Welch, R.J.; Hill, H.R.; Litwin, C.M. Comparison of a multiplexed herpes simplex virus type-specific immunoglobulin G serology assay to immunoblot, Western blot, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2009, 16, 55–60.
  133. Golden, M.R.; Ashley-Morrow, R.; Swenson, P.; Hogrefe, W.R.; Handsfield, H.H.; Wald, A. Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) Western blot confirmatory testing among men testing positive for HSV-2 using the focus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in a sexually transmitted disease clinic. Sex. Transm. Dis. 2005, 32, 771–777.
  134. Cowan, F.M. Testing for type-specific antibody to herpes simplex virus—Implications for clinical practice. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2000, 45, 9–13.
  135. de Ory, F.; Guisasola, M.E.; Balfagón, P.; Sanz, J.C. Comparison of commercial methods of immunoblot, ELISA, and chemiluminescent immunoassay for detecting type-specific herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2 IgG. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 2018, 32, e22203.
  136. Reddy, S.M.; Balakrishnan, P.; Uma, S.; Thyagarajan, S.P.; Solomon, S. Performance of two commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits using recombinant glycoprotein G2 antigen for detection of herpes simplex virus type 2 specific antibodies. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 2005, 12, 359–360.
  137. Kimmel, N.; Friedman, M.G.; Sarov, I. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of herpes simplex virus-specific IgM antibodies. J. Virol. Methods 1982, 4, 219–227.
  138. Clayton, A.L.; Roberts, C.; Godley, M.; Best, J.M.; Chantler, S.M. Herpes simplex virus detection by ELISA: Effect of enzyme amplification, nature of lesion sampled and specimen treatment. J. Med. Virol. 1986, 20, 89–97.
  139. Hogrefe, W.; Su, X.; Song, J.; Ashley, R.; Kong, L. Detection of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2-Specific Immunoglobulin G Antibodies in African Sera by Using Recombinant gG2, Western Blotting, and gG2 Inhibition. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2002, 40, 3635–3640.
  140. Hashido, M.; Lee, F.K.; Inouye, S.; Kawana, T. Detection of herpes simplex virus type-specific antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on glycoprotein G. J. Med. Virol. 1997, 53, 319–323.
  141. Mark, H.D.; Nanda, J.P.; Roberts, J.; Rompalo, A.; Melendez, J.H.; Zenilman, J. Performance of focus ELISA tests for HSV-1 and HSV-2 antibodies among university students with no history of genital herpes. Sex. Transm. Dis. 2007, 34, 681–685.
  142. Ashley, R.L. Sorting out the new HSV type specific antibody tests. Sex. Transm. Infect. 2001, 77, 232–237.
  143. Görander, S.; Svennerholm, B.; Liljeqvist, J.-Å. Secreted Portion of Glycoprotein G of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Is a Novel Antigen for Type-Discriminating Serology. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2003, 41, 3681–3686.
  144. Wald, A.; Ashley-Morrow, R. Serological Testing for Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)–1 and HSV-2 Infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2002, 35, S173–S182.
  145. Ho, D.W.T.; Field, P.R.; Sjögren-Jansson, E.; Jeansson, S.; Cunningham, A.L. Indirect ELISA for the detection of HSV-2 specific IgG and IgM antibodies with glycoprotein G (gG-2). J. Virol. Methods 1992, 36, 249–264.
  146. Aldisi, R.S.; Elsidiq, M.S.; Dargham, S.R.; Sahara, A.S.; Al-Absi, E.S.; Nofal, M.Y.; Mohammed, L.I.; Abu-Raddad, L.J.; Nasrallah, G.K. Performance evaluation of four type-specific commercial assays for detection of herpes simplex virus type 1 antibodies in a Middle East and North Africa population. J. Clin. Virol. 2018, 103, 1–7.
  147. van Dyck, E.; Buvé, A.; Weiss, H.A.; Glynn, J.R.; Brown, D.W.G.; De Deken, B.; Parry, J.; Hayes, R.J. Performance of commercially available enzyme immunoassays for detection of antibodies against herpes simplex virus type 2 in African populations. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2004, 42, 2961–2965.
  148. Liang, Q.-N.; Zhou, J.-W.; Liu, T.-C.; Lin, G.-F.; Dong, Z.-N.; Chen, Z.-H.; Chen, J.-J.; Wu, Y.-S. Development of a time-resolved fluorescence immunoassay for herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 IgG antibodies. Luminescence 2015, 30, 649–654.
  149. Brenner, N.; Mentzer, A.J.; Butt, J.; Michel, A.; Prager, K.; Brozy, J.; Weißbrich, B.; Aiello, A.E.; Meier, H.C.S.; Breuer, J.; et al. Validation of Multiplex Serology detecting human herpesviruses 1-5. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0209379.
  150. Binnicker, M.J.; Jespersen, D.J.; Harring, J.A. Evaluation of three multiplex flow immunoassays compared to an enzyme immunoassay for the detection and differentiation of IgG class antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2010, 17, 253–257.
  151. Burbelo, P.D.; Hoshino, Y.; Leahy, H.; Krogmann, T.; Hornung, R.L.; Iadarola, M.J.; Cohen, J.I. Serological diagnosis of human herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 infections by luciferase immunoprecipitation system assay. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2009, 16, 366–371.
  152. Burbelo, P.D.; Ching, K.H.; Klimavicz, C.M.; Iadarola, M.J. Antibody profiling by Luciferase Immunoprecipitation Systems (LIPS). J. Vis. Exp. 2009, 32, 1549.
  153. Burbelo, P.D.; Ching, K.H.; Bren, K.E.; Iadarola, M.J. Searching for biomarkers: Humoral response profiling with luciferase immunoprecipitation systems. Expert Rev. Proteom. 2011, 8, 309–316.
  154. Zubair, A.; Burbelo, P.D.; Vincent, L.G.; Iadarola, M.J.; Smith, P.D.; Morgan, N.Y. Microfluidic LIPS for serum antibody detection: Demonstration of a rapid test for HSV-2 infection. Biomed. Microdevices 2011, 13, 1053–1062.
  155. Burbelo, P.D.; Gunti, S.; Keller, J.M.; Morse, C.G.; Deeks, S.G.; Lionakis, M.S.; Kapoor, A.; Li, Q.; Cohen, J.I.; Notkins, A.L.; et al. Ultrarapid Measurement of Diagnostic Antibodies by Magnetic Capture of Immune Complexes. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 3818.
  156. Nath, P.; Kabir, A.; Khoubafarin Doust, S.; Kreais, Z.J.; Ray, A. Detection of Bacterial and Viral Pathogens Using Photonic Point-of-Care Devices. Diagnostics 2020, 10, 841.
  157. Bissonnette, L.; Bergeron, M.G. Portable devices and mobile instruments for infectious diseases point-of-care testing. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2017, 17, 471–494.
  158. Pandey, C.M.; Augustine, S.; Kumar, S.; Kumar, S.; Nara, S.; Srivastava, S.; Malhotra, B.D. Microfluidics Based Point-of-Care Diagnostics. Biotechnol. J. 2018, 13, 1700047.
  159. Mejía-Salazar, J.R.; Rodrigues Cruz, K.; Materón Vásques, E.M.; Novais de Oliveira, O., Jr. Microfluidic Point-of-Care Devices: New Trends and Future Prospects for eHealth Diagnostics. Sensors 2020, 20, 1951.
  160. Arshavsky-Graham, S.; Segal, E. Lab-on-a-Chip Devices for Point-of-Care Medical Diagnostics; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 1–19.
  161. Sachdeva, S.; Davis, R.W.; Saha, A.K. Microfluidic Point-of-Care Testing: Commercial Landscape and Future Directions. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2021, 8, 1537.
  162. Campbell, J.M.; Balhoff, J.B.; Landwehr, G.M.; Rahman, S.M.; Vaithiyanathan, M.; Melvin, A.T. Microfluidic and Paper-Based Devices for Disease Detection and Diagnostic Research. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 2731.
  163. Garg, N.; Boyle, D.; Randall, A.; Teng, A.; Pablo, J.; Liang, X.; Camerini, D.; Lee, A.P. Rapid immunodiagnostics of multiple viral infections in an acoustic microstreaming device with serum and saliva samples. Lab Chip 2019, 19, 1524–1533.
  164. Qiu, X.; Zhang, J.; Li, Y.; Zhang, C.; Wang, D.; Zhu, W.; Li, F.; Ge, S.; Xia, N.; Qian, S. A bead-based microfluidic system for joint detection in TORCH screening at point-of-care testing. Microsyst. Technol. 2018, 24, 2007–2015.
  165. Li, X.; Zhang, Q.; Hou, P.; Chen, M.; Hui, W.; Vermorken, A.; Luo, Z.; Li, H.; Li, Q.; Cui, Y. Gold magnetic nanoparticle conjugate-based lateral flow assay for the detection of IgM class antibodies related to TORCH infections. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2015, 36, 1319–1326.
  166. Shevlin, E.; Morrow, R.A. Comparative performance of the Uni-GoldTM HSV-2 Rapid: A point-of-care HSV-2 diagnostic test in unselected sera from a reference laboratory. J. Clin. Virol. 2014, 61, 378–381.
  167. Goux, H.J.; Raja, B.; Kourentzi, K.; Trabuco, J.R.C.; Vu, B.V.; Paterson, A.S.; Kirkpatrick, A.; Townsend, B.; Lee, M.; Truong, V.T.T.; et al. Evaluation of a nanophosphor lateral-flow assay for self-testing for herpes simplex virus type 2 seropositivity. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0225365.
More