Nutrition in Actual COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Conner Chen and Version 1 by Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez.

The pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has shocked world health authorities generating a global health crisis. A direct impact on the normal life of people around the world was produced by the actual pandemic with restrictive policies like lockdown, the use of protective masks, and limitations of personal movement. The COVID-19 lockdown promoted unhealthy dietary changes and increases in body weight of the population, showing obesity and low physical activity levels as increased risk factors of COVID-19 affection and physiopathology. In addition, hospitalized COVID-19 patients presented malnutrition and deficiencies in vitamin C, D, B12 selenium, iron, omega-3, and medium and long-chain fatty acids highlighting the potential health effect of vitamin C and D interventions. 

  • COVID-19
  • nutrition
  • dietary pattern
  • immunology
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Batlle-Bayer, L.; Aldaco, R.; Bala, A.; Puig, R.; Laso, J.; Margallo, M.; Vázquez-Rowe, I.; Antó, J.M.; Fullana-i-Palmer, P. Environmental and nutritional impacts of dietary changes in Spain during the COVID-19 lockdown. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 748.
  2. Sidor, A.; Rzymski, P. Dietary choices and habits during COVID-19 lockdown: Experience from Poland. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1657.
  3. Muscogiuri, G.; Barrea, L.; Savastano, S.; Colao, A. Nutritional recommendations for CoVID-19 quarantine. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2020, 74, 850–851.
  4. Rundle, A.G.; Park, Y.; Herbstman, J.B.; Kinsey, E.W.; Wang, Y.C. COVID-19–related school closings and risk of weight gain among children. Obesity 2020, 28, 1008–1009.
  5. Rodriguez-Besteiro, S.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F.; Fernández-Lucas, J.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. Gender Differences in the COVID-19 Pandemic Risk Perception, Psychology, and Behaviors of Spanish University Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3908.
  6. Jia, P.; Liu, L.; Xie, X.; Yuan, C.; Chen, H.; Guo, B.; Zhou, J.; Yang, S. Changes in dietary patterns among youths in China during COVID-19 epidemic: The COVID-19 impact on lifestyle change survey (COINLICS). Appetite 2021, 158.
  7. Ruiz-Roso, M.B.; de Carvalho Padilha, P.; Mantilla-Escalante, D.C.; Ulloa, N.; Brun, P.; Acevedo-Correa, D.; Arantes Ferreira Peres, W.; Martorell, M.; Aires, M.T.; de Oliveira Cardoso, L. Covid-19 confinement and changes of adolescent’s dietary trends in Italy, Spain, Chile, Colombia and Brazil. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1807.
  8. Opichka, K.; Smith, C.; Levine, A.S. Problematic eating behaviors are more prevalent in african american women who are overweight or obese than african american women who are lean or normal weight. Fam. Commun. Health 2019, 42, 81–89.
  9. Błaszczyk-Bębenek, E.; Jagielski, P.; Bolesławska, I.; Jagielska, A.; Nitsch-Osuch, A.; Kawalec, P. Nutrition behaviors in Polish adults before and during COVID-19 lockdown. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3084.
  10. Pietrobelli, A.; Pecoraro, L.; Ferruzzi, A.; Heo, M.; Faith, M.; Zoller, T.; Antoniazzi, F.; Piacentini, G.; Fearnbach, S.N.; Heymsfield, S.B. Effects of COVID-19 lockdown on lifestyle behaviors in children with obesity living in Verona, Italy: A longitudinal study. Obesity 2020, 28, 1382–1385.
  11. Larsen, S.C.; Heitmann, B.L. More frequent intake of regular meals and less frequent snacking are weakly associated with lower long-term gains in body mass index and fat mass in middle-aged men and women. J. Nutr. 2019, 149, 824–830.
  12. Serra-Majem, L.; Tomaino, L.; Dernini, S.; Berry, E.M.; Lairon, D.; Ngo de la Cruz, J.; Bach-Faig, A.; Donini, L.M.; Medina, F.-X.; Belahsen, R.; et al. Updating the Mediterranean diet pyramid towards sustainability: Focus on environmental concerns. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8758.
  13. Poobalan, A.S.; Aucott, L.S.; Clarke, A.; Smith, W.C.S. Diet behaviour among young people in transition to adulthood (18–25 year olds): A mixed method study. Health Psychol. Behav. Med. 2014, 2, 909–928.
  14. Araiza, A.M.; Lobel, M. Stress and eating: Definitions, findings, explanations, and implications. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 2018, 12, e12378.
  15. Moynihan, A.B.; Van Tilburg, W.A.; Igou, E.R.; Wisman, A.; Donnelly, A.E.; Mulcaire, J.B. Eaten up by boredom: Consuming food to escape awareness of the bored self. Front. Psychol. 2015, 6.
  16. Gasmi, A.; Noor, S.; Tippairote, T.; Dadar, M.; Menzel, A.; Bjørklund, G. Individual risk management strategy and potential therapeutic options for the COVID-19 pandemic. Clin. Immunol. 2020, 215.
  17. Fernandez, M.L.; Raheem, D.; Ramos, F.; Carrascosa, C.; Saraiva, A.; Raposo, A. Highlights of current dietary guidelines in five continents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2814.
  18. Bhaskaram, P. Micronutrient malnutrition, infection, and immunity: An overview. Nutr. Rev. 2002, 60, S40–S45.
  19. Cava, E.; Carbone, S. Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and alterations of body composition. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2021, 24, 229–235.
  20. Ding, D.; Cheng, M.; del Pozo Cruz, B.; Lin, T.; Sun, S.; Zhang, L.; Yang, Q.; Ma, Z.; Wang, J.; Jia, Y. How COVID-19 lockdown and reopening affected daily steps: Evidence based on 164,630 person-days of prospectively collected data from Shanghai, China. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2021, 18, 1–10.
  21. Neovius, M.; Linne, Y.; Rossner, S. BMI, waist-circumference and waist-hip-ratio as diagnostic tests for fatness in adolescents. Int. J. Obes. 2005, 29, 163–169.
  22. Menke, A.; Muntner, P.; Wildman, R.P.; Reynolds, K.; He, J. Measures of adiposity and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Obesity 2007, 15, 785–795.
  23. Freuer, D.; Linseisen, J.; Meisinger, C. Impact of body composition on COVID-19 susceptibility and severity: A two-sample multivariable mendelian randomization study. Metab. Clin. Exp. 2021, 118.
  24. Christensen, R.A.; Sturrock, S.L.; Arneja, J.; Brooks, J.D. Measures of adiposity and risk of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 in the UK biobank study. J. Obes. 2021, 2021.
  25. Favre, G.; Legueult, K.; Pradier, C.; Raffaelli, C.; Ichai, C.; Iannelli, A.; Esnault, V. Visceral fat is associated to the severity of COVID-19. Metabolism 2021, 115, 154440.
  26. Petersen, A.; Bressem, K.; Albrecht, J.; Thieß, H.; Vahldiek, J.; Hamm, B.; Makowski, M.R.; Niehues, A.; Niehues, S.M.; Adams, L.C. The role of visceral adiposity in the severity of COVID-19: Highlights from a unicenter cross-sectional pilot study in Germany. Metab. Clin. Exp. 2020, 110.
  27. Kottlors, J.; Zopfs, D.; Fervers, P.; Bremm, J.; Abdullayev, N.; Maintz, D.; Tritt, S.; Persigehl, T. Body composition on low dose chest CT is a significant predictor of poor clinical outcome in COVID-19 disease-A multicenter feasibility study. Eur. J. Radiol. 2020, 132.
  28. Van Zelst, C.M.; Janssen, M.L.; Pouw, N.; Birnie, E.; Castro Cabezas, M.; Braunstahl, G.J. Analyses of abdominal adiposity and metabolic syndrome as risk factors for respiratory distress in COVID-19. BMJ Open Respir. Res. 2020, 7.
  29. De Faria Coelho-Ravagnani, C.; Corgosinho, F.C.; Sanches, F.L.F.Z.; Prado, C.M.M.; Laviano, A.; Mota, J.F. Dietary recommendations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nutr. Rev. 2021, 79, 382–393.
  30. Rebello, C.J.; Kirwan, J.P.; Greenway, F.L. Obesity, the most common comorbidity in SARS-CoV-2: Is leptin the link? Int. J. Obes. 2020, 44, 1–8.
  31. Földi, M.; Farkas, N.; Kiss, S.; Zádori, N.; Váncsa, S.; Szakó, L.; Dembrovszky, F.; Solymár, M.; Bartalis, E.; Szakács, Z. Obesity is a risk factor for developing critical condition in COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Rev. 2020, 21, e13095.
  32. Chu, Y.; Yang, J.; Shi, J.; Zhang, P.; Wang, X. Obesity is associated with increased severity of disease in COVID-19 pneumonia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Med. Res. 2020, 25, 1–15.
  33. Watanabe, M.; Caruso, D.; Tuccinardi, D.; Risi, R.; Zerunian, M.; Polici, M.; Pucciarelli, F.; Tarallo, M.; Strigari, L.; Manfrini, S. Visceral fat shows the strongest association with the need of intensive care in patients with COVID-19. Metab. Clin. Exp. 2020, 111.
  34. Zhao, X.; Gang, X.; He, G.; Li, Z.; Lv, Y.; Han, Q.; Wang, G. Obesity increases the severity and mortality of influenza and COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Endocrinol. 2020, 11.
  35. Tamara, A.; Tahapary, D.L. Obesity as a predictor for a poor prognosis of COVID-19: A systematic review. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev. 2020, 14, 655–659.
  36. Yang, J.; Hu, J.; Zhu, C. Obesity aggravates COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Med. Virol. 2021, 93, 257–261.
  37. Huber, B.C.; Steffen, J.; Schlichtiger, J.; Brunner, S. Altered nutrition behavior during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in young adults. Eur. J. Nutr. 2020, 1–10.
  38. Banga, N.; Guss, P.; Banga, A.; Rosenman, K.D. Incidence and variables associated with inadequate antibody titers after pre-exposure rabies vaccination among veterinary medical students. Vaccine 2014, 32, 979–983.
  39. Liu, F.; Guo, Z.; Dong, C. Influences of obesity on the immunogenicity of Hepatitis B vaccine. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. 2017, 13, 1014–1017.
  40. Neidich, S.D.; Green, W.D.; Rebeles, J.; Karlsson, E.A.; Schultz-Cherry, S.; Noah, T.L.; Chakladar, S.; Hudgens, M.G.; Weir, S.S.; Beck, M.A. Increased risk of influenza among vaccinated adults who are obese. Int. J. Obes. 2017, 41, 1324–1330.
  41. Eliakim, A.; Swindt, C.; Zaldivar, F.; Casali, P.; Cooper, D.M. Reduced tetanus antibody titers in overweight children. Autoimmunity 2006, 39, 137–141.
  42. Butler, M.J.; Barrientos, R.M. The impact of nutrition on COVID-19 susceptibility and long-term consequences. Brain Behav. Immun. 2021, 87, 53–54.
  43. Dastoli, S.; Bennardo, L.; Patruno, C.; Nisticò, S.P. Are erythema multiforme and urticaria related to a better outcome of COVID-19? Dermatol. Ther. 2020, 33, e13681.
  44. Greene, M.W.; Roberts, A.P.; Frugé, A.D. Negative association between Mediterranean diet adherence and COVID-19 cases and related deaths in Spain and 25 OECD countries: An ecological study. Front. Nutr. 2021, 8.
  45. Richardson, D.P.; Lovegrove, J.A. Nutritional status of micronutrients as a possible and modifiable risk factor for COVID-19: A UK perspective. Br. J. Nutr. 2021, 125, 678–684.
  46. Sassi, F.; Tamone, C.; D’Amelio, P. Vitamin D: Nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1656.
  47. Pereira, M.; Dantas Damascena, A.; Galvão Azevedo, L.M.; de Almeida Oliveira, T.; da Mota Santana, J. Vitamin D deficiency aggravates COVID-19: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 1–9.
  48. Detopoulou, P.; Demopoulos, C.A.; Antonopoulou, S. Micronutrients, phytochemicals and mediterranean diet: A potential protective role against COVID-19 through modulation of PAF actions and metabolism. Nutrients 2021, 13, 462.
  49. Gasmi, A.; Tippairote, T.; Mujawdiya, P.K.; Peana, M.; Menzel, A.; Dadar, M.; Bjørklund, G. Micronutrients as immunomodulatory tools for COVID-19 management. Clin. Immunol. 2020, 220, 108545.
  50. Im, J.H.; Je, Y.S.; Baek, J.; Chung, M.; Kwon, H.Y.; Lee, J. Nutritional status of patients with COVID-19. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 100, 390–393.
  51. Saeed, F.; Nadeem, M.; Ahmed, R.S.; Tahir Nadeem, M.; Arshad, M.S.; Ullah, A. Studying the impact of nutritional immunology underlying the modulation of immune responses by nutritional compounds—A review. Food Agric. Immunol. 2016, 27, 205–229.
  52. Patterson, T.; Isales, C.M.; Fulzele, S. Low level of vitamin C and dysregulation of vitamin C transporter might be involved in the severity of COVID-19 infection. Aging Dis. 2021, 12.
  53. Carr, A.C. Vitamin C in pneumonia and sepsis. In Vitamin C: New Biochemical and Functional Insights. Oxidative Stress and Disease; Chen, Q., Vissers, M., Eds.; Taylor & Francis: Abingdon, UK, 2020; pp. 115–135.
  54. Arvinte, C.; Singh, M.; Marik, P.E. Serum levels of vitamin C and vitamin D in a cohort of critically ill COVID-19 patients of a north american community hospital intensive care unit in May 2020: A pilot study. Med. Drug Discov. 2020, 8.
  55. Galmés, S.; Serra, F.; Palou, A. Current state of evidence: Influence of nutritional and nutrigenetic factors on immunity in the COVID-19 pandemic framework. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2738.
  56. Agoro, R.; Taleb, M.; Quesniaux, V.F.; Mura, C. Cell iron status influences macrophage polarization. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0196921.
  57. Mikkelsen, K.; Stojanovska, L.; Prakash, M.; Apostolopoulos, V. The effects of vitamin B on the immune/cytokine network and their involvement in depression. Maturitas 2017, 96, 58–71.
  58. Haraj, N.E.; El Aziz, S.; Chadli, A.; Dafir, A.; Mjabber, A.; Aissaoui, O.; Barrou, L.; El Hamidi, C.E.K.; Nsiri, A.; Harrar, R.A. Nutritional status assessment in patients with Covid-19 after discharge from the intensive care unit. Clin. Nutr. ESPEN 2021, 41, 423–428.
  59. Abate, S.M.; Chekole, Y.A.; Estifanos, M.B.; Abate, K.H.; Kabtyimer, R.H. Prevalence and outcomes of malnutrition among hospitalized COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Nutr. ESPEN 2021, 43.
  60. Anker, M.S.; Landmesser, U.; von Haehling, S.; Butler, J.; Coats, A.J.; Anker, S.D. Weight loss, malnutrition, and cachexia in COVID-19: Facts and numbers. J. Cachex Sarcopenia Muscle 2021, 12, 674.
  61. Van Aerde, N.; Van den Berghe, G.; Wilmer, A.; Gosselink, R.; Hermans, G. Intensive care unit acquired muscle weakness in COVID-19 patients. Intensive Care Med. 2020, 46, 2083–2085.
  62. Gröber, U.; Holick, M.F. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19)–A supportive approach with selected micronutrients. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2021, 1–22.
  63. Yang, P.; Lin, M.; Liu, Y.; Lee, C.; Chang, N. Effect of nutritional intervention programs on nutritional status and readmission rate in malnourished older adults with pneumonia: A randomized control trial. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4758.
  64. Sahebnasagh, A.; Saghafi, F.; Avan, R.; Khoshi, A.; Khataminia, M.; Safdari, M.; Habtemariam, S.; Ghaleno, H.R.; Nabavi, S.M. The prophylaxis and treatment potential of supplements for COVID-19. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2020, 887, 173530.
  65. Jayawardena, R.; Sooriyaarachchi, P.; Chourdakis, M.; Jeewandara, C.; Ranasinghe, P. Enhancing immunity in viral infections, with special emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev. 2020, 14, 367–382.
  66. Dattola, A.; Silvestri, M.; Bennardo, L.; Passante, M.; Scali, E.; Patruno, C.; Nisticò, S.P. Role of vitamins in skin health: A Systematic review. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2020, 9, 1–10.
  67. Annweiler, C.; Hanotte, B.; de l’Eprevier, C.G.; Sabatier, J.M.; Lafaie, L.; Célarier, T. Vitamin D and survival in COVID-19 patients: A quasi-experimental study. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2020, 204, 105771.
  68. Mercola, J.; Grant, W.B.; Wagner, C.L. Evidence regarding Vitamin D and risk of COVID-19 and its severity. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3361.
  69. Shah, K.; Saxena, D. Vitamin D supplementation, COVID-19 & disease severity: A meta-analysis. QJM Int. J. Med. 2021, 114.
  70. Hamulka, J.; Jeruszka-Bielak, M.; Górnicka, M.; Drywień, M.E.; Zielinska-Pukos, M.A. Dietary supplements during COVID-19 outbreak. Results of google trends analysis supported by PLifeCOVID-19 online studies. Nutrients 2021, 13, 54.
  71. Lordan, R. Notable developments for vitamin D amid the COVID-19 pandemic, but caution warranted overall: A narrative review. Nutrients 2021, 13, 740.
  72. Vyas, N.; Kurian, S.J.; Bagchi, D.; Manu, M.K.; Saravu, K.; Unnikrishnan, M.K.; Mukhopadhyay, C.; Rao, M.; Miraj, S.S. Vitamin D in prevention and treatment of COVID-19: Current perspective and future prospects. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2020, 1–14.
  73. Tripkovic, L.; Lambert, H.; Hart, K.; Smith, C.P.; Bucca, G.; Penson, S.; Chope, G.; Hyppönen, E.; Berry, J.; Vieth, R. comparison of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 supplementation in raising serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 95, 1357–1364.
  74. Jain, S.K.; Parsanathan, R. Can vitamin D and L-cysteine co-supplementation reduce 25 (OH)-vitamin D deficiency and the mortality associated with COVID-19 in African Americans? J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2020, 39, 694–699.
  75. Tan, C.W.; Ho, L.P.; Kalimuddin, S.; Cherng, B.P.Z.; Teh, Y.E.; Thien, S.Y.; Wong, H.M.; Tern, P.J.W.; Chay, J.W.M.; Nagarajan, C. A cohort study to evaluate the effect of combination vitamin D, magnesium and vitamin B12 (DMB) on progression to severe outcome in older COVID-19 patients. MedRxiv 2020, 111017.
  76. Chakhtoura, M.; Napoli, N.; El Hajj Fuleihan, G. Commentary: Myths and facts on vitamin D amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Metabolism 2020, 109.
  77. Griffin, G.; Hewison, M.; Hopkin, J.; Kenny, R.; Quinton, R.; Rhodes, J.; Subramanian, S.; Thickett, D. Vitamin D and COVID-19: Evidence and recommendations for supplementation. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2020, 7.
  78. Nikniaz, L.; Akbarzadeh, M.A.; Hosseinifard, H.; Hosseini, M. The impact of vitamin D supplementation on mortality rate and clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. MedRxiv 2021, 9219.
  79. Hewison, M. An update on vitamin D and human immunity. Clin. Endocrinol. 2012, 76, 315–325.
  80. Lee, G.Y.; Han, S.N. The role of vitamin E in immunity. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1614.
  81. Holford, P.; Carr, A.C.; Jovic, T.H.; Ali, S.R.; Whitaker, I.S.; Marik, P.E.; Smith, A.D. Vitamin C—An adjunctive therapy for respiratory infection, sepsis and COVID-19. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3760.
  82. Hiedra, R.; Lo, K.B.; Elbashabsheh, M.; Gul, F.; Wright, R.M.; Albano, J.; Azmaiparashvili, Z.; Patarroyo Aponte, G. The use of IV vitamin C for patients with COVID-19: A case series. Exp. Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 2020, 18, 1259–1261.
  83. Gao, D.; Xu, M.; Wang, G.; Lv, J.; Ma, X.; Guo, Y.; Zhang, D.; Yang, H.; Jiang, W.; Deng, F. The efficiency and safety of high-dose vitamin C in patients with COVID-19: A retrospective cohort study. Aging 2021, 13.
  84. Li, R.; Wu, K.; Li, Y.; Liang, X.; Lai, K.P.; Chen, J. Integrative pharmacological mechanism of vitamin C combined with glycyrrhizic acid against COVID-19: Findings of bioinformatics analyses. Brief. Bioinform. 2020, 22.
  85. Colunga Biancatelli, R.M.L.; Berrill, M.; Catravas, J.D.; Marik, P.E. Quercetin and vitamin C: An experimental, synergistic therapy for the prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 related disease (COVID-19). Front. Immunol. 2020, 11.
  86. Chaudhary, S.M.D.; Wright, R.M.; Patarroyo-Aponte, G. Role of vitamin C in critically ill patients with COVID-19: Is it effective? Acute Crit. Care 2020, 35, 307–308.
  87. JamaliMoghadamSiahkali, S.; Zarezade, B.; Koolaji, S.; SeyedAlinaghi, S.; Zendehdel, A.; Tabarestani, M.; Moghadam, E.S.; Abbasian, L.; Manshadi, S.A.D.; Salehi, M. Safety and effectiveness of high-dose vitamin C in patients with COVID-19: A randomized open-label clinical trial. Eur. J. Med. Res. 2021, 26, 1–9.
  88. Thomas, S.; Patel, D.; Bittel, B.; Wolski, K.; Wang, Q.; Kumar, A.; Il’Giovine, Z.J.; Mehra, R.; McWilliams, C.; Nissen, S.E. Effect of high-dose zinc and ascorbic acid supplementation vs usual care on symptom length and reduction among ambulatory patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: The COVID A to Z randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw. Open 2021, 4.
  89. Zhou, J.; Ma, Y.; Liu, Y.; Xiang, Y.; Tao, C.; Yu, H.; Huang, J. A correlation analysis between the nutritional status and prognosis of COVID-19 patients. J. Nutr. Health Aging 2021, 25, 84–93.
  90. Bourke, C.D.; Berkley, J.A.; Prendergast, A.J. Immune dysfunction as a cause and consequence of malnutrition. Trends Immunol. 2016, 37, 386–398.
  91. Wang, R.; DeGruttola, V.; Lei, Q.; Mayer, K.H.; Redline, S.; Hazra, A.; Mora, S.; Willett, W.C.; Ganmaa, D.; Manson, J.E. The vitamin D for COVID-19 (VIVID) trial: A pragmatic cluster-randomized design. Contemp. Clin. Trials 2021, 100.
  92. Lange, K.W.; Nakamura, Y. Food bioactives, micronutrients, immune function and COVID-19. J. Food Bioact. 2020, 10.
  93. Barazzoni, R.; Bischoff, S.C.; Breda, J.; Wickramasinghe, K.; Krznaric, Z.; Nitzan, D.; Singer, P. ESPEN expert statements and practical guidance for nutritional management of individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin. Nutr. 2020, 39, 1631–1638.
  94. Popkin, B.M.; Du, S.; Green, W.D.; Beck, M.A.; Algaith, T.; Herbst, C.H.; Alsukait, R.F.; Alluhidan, M.; Alazemi, N.; Shekar, M. Individuals with obesity and COVID-19: A global perspective on the epidemiology and biological relationships. Obes. Rev. 2020, 21, e13128.
  95. De Morais, C.M. Nutritional therapy in COVID-19 management. Kompass Nutr. Diet. 2021, 1, 1–3.
  96. Romano, L.; Bilotta, F.; Dauri, M.; Macheda, S.; Pujia, A.; De Santis, G.; Tarsitano, M.; Merra, G.; Di Renzo, L.; Esposito, E. Short report-medical nutrition therapy for critically ill patients with COVID-19. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2020, 24, 4035–4039.
  97. Pecora, F.; Persico, F.; Argentiero, A.; Neglia, C.; Esposito, S. The role of micronutrients in support of the immune response against viral infections. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3198.
  98. Gorji, A.; Ghadiri, M.K. The potential roles of micronutrient deficiency and immune system dysfunction in COVID-19 pandemic. Nutrition 2020, 111047.
  99. Junaid, K.; Ejaz, H.; Abdalla, A.E.; Abosalif, K.O.; Ullah, M.I.; Yasmeen, H.; Younas, S.; Hamam, S.S.; Rehman, A. Effective immune functions of micronutrients against Sars-Cov-2. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2992.
  100. McAuliffe, S.; Ray, S.; Fallon, E.; Bradfield, J.; Eden, T.; Kohlmeier, M. Dietary micronutrients in the wake of COVID-19: An appraisal of evidence with a focus on high-risk groups and preventative healthcare. BMJ Nutr. Prev. Health 2020, 3, 93.
  101. Xing, Y.; Zhao, B.; Yin, L.; Guo, M.; Shi, H.; Zhu, Z.; Zhang, L.; He, J.; Ling, Y.; Gao, M. Vitamin C supplementation is necessary for patients with coronavirus disease: An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry finding. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2021, 196.
  102. Fernández-Quintela, A.; Milton-Laskibar, I.; Trepiana, J.; Gómez-Zorita, S.; Kajarabille, N.; Léniz, A.; González, M.; Portillo, M.P. Key aspects in nutritional management of COVID-19 patients. J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 2589.
  103. Laviano, A.; Zanetti, M. Nutrition support in the time of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). Nutrition 2020, 74.
  104. Tsamakis, K.; Triantafyllis, A.S.; Tsiptsios, D.; Spartalis, E.; Mueller, C.; Tsamakis, C.; Chaidou, S.; Spandidos, D.A.; Fotis, L.; Economou, M. COVID-19 related stress exacerbates common physical and mental pathologies and affects treatment. Exp. Ther. Med. 2020, 20, 159–162.
  105. Merad, M.; Martin, J.C. Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: A key role for monocytes and macrophages. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2020, 20, 355–362.
  106. Lange, K.W.; Nakamura, Y. Movement and nutrition in COVID-19. Mov. Nutr. Health Dis. 2020, 4.
  107. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Fuentes-García, J.P.; de la Vega Marcos, R.; Martínez Patiño, M.J. Modulators of the personal and professional threat perception of olympic athletes in the actual COVID-19 crisis. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11.
  108. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Navarro-Jiménez, E.; Jimenez, M.; Hormeño-Holgado, A.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.B.; Benitez-Agudelo, J.C.; Perez-Palencia, N.; Laborde-Cárdenas, C.C.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic in public mental health: An extensive narrative review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3221.
  109. Kumar, K.H.; Baruah, M. Nutritional endocrine disorders. J. Med. Nutr. Nutraceut. 2012, 1.
  110. Monneret, C. What is an endocrine disruptor? Comptes Rendus Biol. 2017, 340, 403–405.
  111. Plunk, E.C.; Richards, S.M. Epigenetic modifications due to environment, ageing, nutrition, and endocrine disrupting chemicals and their effects on the endocrine system. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2020, 2020.
  112. Abdel-Moneim, A.; Hosni, A. Insights into the possible impact of COVID-19 on the endocrine system. Arch. Physiol. Biochem. 2021, 1–9.
  113. Song, P.; Li, W.; Xie, J.; Hou, Y.; You, C. Cytokine storm induced by SARS-CoV-2. Clin. Chim. Acta 2020, 509, 280–287.
  114. Calder, P.C. Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19. BMJ Nutr. Prev. Health 2020, 3, 74–92.
  115. Yoshii, K.; Hosomi, K.; Sawane, K.; Kunisawa, J. Metabolism of dietary and microbial vitamin B family in the regulation of host immunity. Front. Nutr. 2019, 6.
  116. Cerullo, G.; Negro, M.; Parimbelli, M.; Pecoraro, M.; Perna, S.; Liguori, G.; Rondanelli, M.; Cena, H.; D’Antona, G. the long history of vitamin C: From prevention of the common cold to potential aid in the treatment of COVID-19. Front. Immunol. 2020, 11.
  117. Ng, T.B.; Cheung, R.C.F.; Wong, J.H.; Wang, Y.; Ip, D.T.M.; Wan, D.C.C.; Xia, J. Antiviral activities of whey proteins. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2015, 99, 6997–7008.
  118. Chowdhury, M.A.; Hossain, N.; Kashem, M.A.; Shahid, M.A.; Alam, A. Immune response in COVID-19: A review. Infect. Public Health 2020, 13.
  119. Herrera-Peco, I.; Jiménez-Gómez, B.; Peña-Deudero, J.J.; De Gracia, E.B. Comments on nutritional recommendations for CoVID-19 quarantine. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2021, 1–2.
  120. Uversky, V.N.; Elrashdy, F.; Aljadawi, A.; Ali, S.M.; Khan, R.H.; Redwan, E.M. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection reaches the human nervous system: How? J. Neurosci. Res. 2021, 99, 750–777.
  121. Campos-Bedolla, P.; Walter, F.R.; Veszelka, S.; Deli, M.A. Role of the blood–brain barrier in the nutrition of the central nervous system. Arch. Med. Res. 2014, 45, 610–638.
  122. Virmani, A.; Pinto, L.; Binienda, Z.; Ali, S. Food, nutrigenomics, and neurodegeneration–neuroprotection by what you eat! Mol. Neurobiol. 2013, 48, 353–362.
  123. Blondeau, N. The nutraceutical potential of omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid in reducing the consequences of stroke. Biochimie 2016, 120, 49–55.
  124. Ursell, L.K.; Metcalf, J.L.; Parfrey, L.W.; Knight, R. Defining the human microbiome. Nut. Rev. 2012, 70 (Suppl. 1), S38–S44.
  125. Vighi, G.; Marcucci, F.; Sensi, L.; Di Cara, G.; Frati, F. Allergy and the gastrointestinal system. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2008, 153, 3–6.
  126. Zhang, T.; Cui, X.; Zhao, X.; Wang, J.; Zheng, J.; Zheng, G.; Guo, W.; Cai, C.; He, S.; Xu, Y. Detectable SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in feces of three children during recovery period of COVID-19 pneumonia. J. Med. Virol. 2020, 92, 909–914.
  127. Finlay, B.B.; Amato, K.R.; Azad, M.; Blaser, M.J.; Bosch, T.C.; Chu, H.; Giles-Vernick, T. The hygiene hypothesis, the COVID pandemic, and consequences for the human microbiome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2021, 118, e2010217118.
  128. Geva-Zatorsky, N.; Sefik, E.; Kua, L.; Pasman, L.; Tan, T.G.; Ortiz-Lopez, A.; Yanortsang, T.B.; Yang, L.; Jupp, R.; Mathis, D. Mining the human gut microbiota for immunomodulatory organisms. Cell 2017, 168, 928–943.
  129. Walton, G.E.; Gibson, G.R.; Hunter, K.A. Mechanisms linking the human gut microbiome to prophylactic and treatment strategies for COVID-19. Br. J. Nutr. 2020, 1–9.
  130. Gu, S.; Chen, Y.; Wu, Z.; Chen, Y.; Gao, H.; Lv, L.; Guo, F.; Zhang, X.; Luo, R.; Huang, C. Alterations of the gut microbiota in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 or H1N1 influenza. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2020, 71, 2669–2678.
  131. Yeoh, Y.K.; Zuo, T.; Lui, G.C.; Zhang, F.; Liu, Q.; Li, A.Y.; Chung, A.C.; Cheung, C.P.; Tso, E.Y.; Fung, K.S.; et al. Gut microbiota composition reflects disease severity and dysfunctional immune responses in patients with COVID-19. Gut 2021, 70, 698–706.
  132. Zuo, T.; Zhang, F.; Lui, G.C.; Yeoh, Y.K.; Li, A.Y.; Zhan, H.; Wan, Y.; Chung, A.C.; Cheung, C.P.; Chen, N. Alterations in gut microbiota of patients with COVID-19 during time of hospitalization. Gastroenterology 2020, 159, 944–955.
  133. Villapol, S. Gastrointestinal symptoms associated with COVID-19: Impact on the gut microbiome. Transl. Res. 2020, 226.
  134. Cerdá, B.; Pérez, M.; Pérez-Santiago, J.D.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F.; González-Soltero, R.; Larrosa, M. Gut microbiota modification: Another piece in the puzzle of the benefits of physical exercise in health? Front. Physiol. 2016, 7.
  135. Xu, Z.; Knight, R. Dietary effects on human gut microbiome diversity. Br. J. Nutr. 2015, 113, S1–S5.
  136. Kau, A.L.; Ahern, P.P.; Griffin, N.W.; Goodman, A.L.; Gordon, J.I. Human nutrition, the gut microbiome and the immune system. Nature 2011, 474, 327–336.
  137. Flint, H.J. The impact of nutrition on the human microbiome. Nutr. Rev. 2012, 70, S10–S13.
  138. Tartof, S.Y.; Qian, L.; Hong, V.; Wei, R.; Nadjafi, R.F.; Fischer, H.; Li, Z.; Shaw, S.F.; Caparosa, S.L.; Nau, C.L. Obesity and mortality among patients diagnosed with COVID-19: Results from an integrated health care organization. Ann. Intern. Med. 2020, 173, 773–781.
  139. Bahrmann, A.; Benner, L.; Christ, M.; Bertsch, T.; Sieber, C.C.; Katus, H.; Bahrmann, P. The Charlson Comorbidity and Barthel Index predict length of hospital stay, mortality, cardiovascular mortality and rehospitalization in unselected older patients admitted to the emergency department. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 2019, 31, 1233–1242.
  140. Kodama, S.; Saito, K.; Tanaka, S.; Maki, M.; Yachi, Y.; Asumi, M.; Sugawara, A.; Totsuka, K.; Shimano, H.; Ohashi, Y. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women: A meta-analysis. JAMA 2009, 301, 2024–2035.
  141. Shiroma, E.J.; Lee, I. Physical activity and cardiovascular health: Lessons learned from epidemiological studies across age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Circulation 2010, 122, 743–752.
  142. McElvaney, O.J.; McEvoy, N.L.; McElvaney, O.F.; Carroll, T.P.; Murphy, M.P.; Dunlea, D.M.; Ní Choileáin, O.; Clarke, J.; O’Connor, E.; Hogan, G. Characterization of the inflammatory response to severe COVID-19 illness. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2020, 202, 812–821.
  143. Rodríguez-Llamazares, S.; Aguirre-Pérez, T.; Thirión-Romero, I.I.; Pérez-Padilla, J.R. How silent is hypoxemia in COVID-19? NCT Neumol. Cir. Tórax 2020, 79, 69–70.
  144. Torres-Castro, R.; Vasconcello-Castillo, L.; Alsina-Restoy, X.; Solis-Navarro, L.; Burgos, F.; Puppo, H.; Vilaró, J. Respiratory function in patients post-infection by COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pulmonology 2020.
  145. Xu, J.; Xu, X.; Jiang, L.; Dua, K.; Hansbro, P.M.; Liu, G. SARS-CoV-2 induces transcriptional signatures in human lung epithelial cells that promote lung fibrosis. Respir. Res. 2020, 21, 1–12.
  146. Aggio, D.; Papachristou, E.; Papacosta, O.; Lennon, L.T.; Ash, S.; Whincup, P.H.; Wannamethee, S.G.; Jefferis, B.J. Association between 20-year trajectories of nonoccupational physical activity from midlife to old age and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: A 20-year longitudinal study of British men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2018, 187, 2315–2323.
  147. Moreira, J.B.; Wohlwend, M.; Wisløff, U. Exercise and cardiac health: Physiological and molecular insights. Nat. Metabol. 2020, 2, 829–839.
  148. Proud, P.C.; Tsitoura, D.; Watson, R.J.; Chua, B.Y.; Aram, M.J.; Bewley, K.R.; Carroll, M.W. Prophylactic intranasal administration of a TLR2/6 agonist reduces upper respiratory tract viral shedding in a SARS-CoV-2 challenge ferret model. EBioMedicine 2021, 63, 103153.
  149. South, A.M.; Tomlinson, L.; Edmonston, D.; Hiremath, S.; Sparks, M.A. Controversies of renin–angiotensin system inhibition during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 2020, 16, 305–307.
  150. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. COVID-19: Underlying metabolic health in the spotlight. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020, 8.
  151. Cheval, B.; Sieber, S.; Maltagliati, S.; Millet, G.P.; Formánek, T.; Chalabaev, A.; Cullati, S.; Boisgontier, M.P. Muscle strength is associated with COVID-19 hospitalization in adults 50 years of age and older. MedRxiv 2021, 1–20.
  152. Laukkanen, J.A.; Voutilainen, A.; Kurl, S.; Araujo, C.G.S.; Jae, S.Y.; Kunutsor, S.K. Handgrip strength is inversely associated with fatal cardiovascular and all-cause mortality events. Ann. Med. 2020, 52, 109–119.
  153. Okazaki, T.; Ebihara, S.; Mori, T.; Izumi, S.; Ebihara, T. Association between sarcopenia and pneumonia in older people. Geriatr. Gerontol. Int. 2020, 20, 7–13.
  154. Wang, P.; Li, Y.; Wang, Q. Sarcopenia: An underlying treatment target during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nutrition 2021, 84.
  155. Zhou, F.; Yu, T.; Du, R.; Fan, G.; Liu, Y.; Liu, Z.; Xiang, J.; Wang, Y.; Song, B.; Gu, X. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020, 395, 1054–1062.
  156. Zbinden-Foncea, H.; Francaux, M.; Deldicque, L.; Hawley, J.A. Does high cardiorespiratory fitness confer some protection against proinflammatory responses after infection by SARS-CoV-2? Obesity 2020, 28, 1378–1381.
  157. Brawner, C.; Ehrman, J.; Bole, S.; Kerrigan, D.; Parikh, S.; Lewis, B.; Gindi, R.; Keteyian, C.; Abdul-Nour, K.; Keteyian, S. Maximal exercise capacity is inversely related to hospitalization secondary to Coronavirus disease. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2020, 96.
  158. Nieman, D.C.; Wentz, L.M. The compelling link between physical activity and the body’s defense system. J. Sport Health Sci. 2019, 8, 201–217.
  159. Salgado-Aranda, R.; Pérez-Castellano, N.; Núñez-Gil, I.; Orozco, A.J.; Torres-Esquivel, N.; Flores-Soler, J.; Chamaisse-Akari, A.; Mclnerney, A.; Vergara-Uzcategui, C.; Wang, L.; et al. Influence of baseline physical activity as a modifying factor on COVID-19 mortality: A single-center, retrospective study. Infect. Dis. Ther. 2021, 10, 1–14.
  160. Yates, T.; Razieh, C.; Zaccardi, F.; Rowlands, A.V.; Seidu, S.; Davies, M.J.; Khunti, K. Obesity, walking pace and risk of severe COVID-19 and mortality: Analysis of UK biobank. Int. J. Obes. 2021, 45, 1–5.
  161. Burtscher, J.; Millet, G.P.; Burtscher, M. Low cardiorespiratory and mitochondrial fitness as risk factors in viral infections: Implications for COVID-19. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020, 55.
  162. Silberman, D.M.; Wald, M.R.; Genaro, A.M. Acute and chronic stress exert opposing effects on antibody responses associated with changes in stress hormone regulation of T-lymphocyte reactivity. J. Neuroimmunol. 2003, 144, 53–60.
  163. Edwards, K.M.; Burns, V.E.; Allen, L.M.; McPhee, J.S.; Bosch, J.A.; Carroll, D.; Drayson, M.; Ring, C. Eccentric exercise as an adjuvant to influenza vaccination in humans. Brain Behav. Immun. 2007, 21, 209–217.
  164. Edwards, K.M.; Burns, V.E.; Reynolds, T.; Carroll, D.; Drayson, M.; Ring, C. Acute stress exposure prior to influenza vaccination enhances antibody response in women. Brain Behav. Immun. 2006, 20, 159–168.
  165. Valenzuela, P.L.; Simpson, R.J.; Castillo-García, A.; Lucia, A. Physical activity: A coadjuvant treatment to COVID-19 vaccination? Brain Behav. Immun. 2021, 94.
  166. McGrath, R.; Carson, P.; Jurivich, D. It is important to examine physical functioning and inflammatory responses during post-hospitalization COVID-19 recovery. J. Frailty Aging 2021, 1–2.
More