Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Conner Chen and Version 1 by Silvia Saggiomo.
There are five species of stonefish within the genus Synanceia: Synanceia horrida (previously referred to as S. trachynis), S. verrucosa, S. alula, S. nana and S. platyrhyncha. Synanceia spp. can grow 35–50 cm in length and have evolved grey and mottled skin to camouflage themselves amongst encrusted rocks and coral for predation and defense. Synanceia species have up to 15 dorsal fin spines that are erected when the fish is disturbed. Stings from this medically important group of fish are known to cause painful and lethal human envenomations. Stonefish are regarded as one of the most venomous fish in the world. Research on stonefish venom has chiefly focused on the in vitro and in vivo neurological, cardiovascular, cytotoxic and nociceptive effects of the venom.
stonefish
Synanceia
venom
toxins
toxicology
VTX
SNTX
distribution
Please wait, diff process is still running!
References
Poon, K.M.; Ng, C.H.V.; Tse, M.L. A 10-year retrospective review of stonefish sting injury in Hong Kong. Hong Kong J. Emerg. Med. 2020, 27, 300–303.
Chan, H.Y.; Chan, Y.C.; Tse, M.L.; Lau, F.L. Venomous fish sting cases reported to Hong Kong Poison Information Centre: A three-year retrospective study on epidemiology and management. Hong Kong J. Emerg. Med. 2010, 17, 40–44.
Hifumi, T.; Fukuchi, Y.; Otani, N.; Kondo, Y.; Kitamoto, T.; Kobayashi, K.; Nakaya, N.; Tomioka, J. Clinical characteristics of stonefish ‘Oni-daruma-okoze’ envenomation in Japan. Acute Med. Surg. 2020, 7, 1–7.
Bradley, C. Venomous Bites and Stings in Australia to 2005; Injury Research and Statistics Series Number 40; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare: Canberra, Australia, 2008; pp. 1–104.
Pointer, S.; Harrison, J. Venomous Bites and Stings, 2017–2018; Injury Research and Statistics Series Number 134; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare: Canberra, Australia, 2021; pp. 1–29.
Ngo, S.Y.A.; Ong, S.H.J.; Ponampalam, R. Stonefish envenomation presenting to a Singapore hospital. Singap. Med. J. 2009, 50, 506–509.
Lee, J.Y.L.; Teoh, L.C.; Leo, S.P.M. Stonefish envenomations of the hand—A local marine hazard: A series of 8 cases and review of the literature. Ann. Acad. Med. Singap. 2004, 33, 515–520.
Diaz, J.H. Marine Scorpaenidae Envenomation in Travelers: Epidemiology, Management, and Prevention. J. Travel Med. 2015, 22, 251–258.
Halstead, B.W.; Chitwood, M.J.; Modglin, F.R. Stonefish stings, and the venom apparatus of Synanceja horrida (Linnaeus). Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 1956, 75, 381–397.
Eschmeyer, W.N.; Rao, K.V.R. Two new stonefishes (pisces, Scorpaeniidae) from the Indo-West Pacific with a synopsis of the Subfamily Synanceiinae. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 1973, 39, 337–382.
Endean, B.R. A study of distribution, habitat, behaviour, venom apparatus, and venom of the stone-fish. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 1961, 12, 177–190.
Grobecker, D.B. The ‘lie-in-wait’ feeding mode of a cryptic teleost, Synanceia verrucose. Environ. Biol. Fishes 1983, 8, 191–202.
Southcott, R.V. Australian venomous and poisonous fishes. Clin. Toxicol. 1977, 10, 291–325.
Williamson, J.A.; Fenner, P.J.; Burnett, J.W.; Rifkin, J. Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals; University of New South Wales Press: Sydney, Australia, 1996.
Wiener, S. The production and assay of stone-fish antivenene. Med. J. Aust. 1959, 46, 715–719.
Tintinalli, J.E.; Stapczynski, S.; John Ma, O.; Cline, D.; Cydulka, R.; Meckler, G. Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 7th ed.; McGraw-Hill Medical: New York, NY, USA, 2011.
Atkinson, P.R.T.; Boyle, A.; Hartin, D.; McAuley, D. Is hot water immersion an effective treatment for marine envenomation? Emerg. Med. J. 2006, 23, 503–508.
Barnett, S.; Saggiomo, S.; Smout, M.; Seymour, J. Heat deactivation of the stonefish Synanceia horrida venom—Implications for first-aid management. Diving Hyperb. Med. 2017, 47.
Gwee, M.C.E.; Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Yuen, R.; Khoo, H.E.; Low, K.S.Y. A review of stonefish venoms and toxins. Pharmacol. Ther. 1994, 64, 509–528.
Saunders, P.R. Venom of the stonefish Synanceja horrida (Linnaeus). Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. 1959, 123, 195–205.
Auerbach, P.S. Marine envenomations. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991, 325, 486–493.
Phoon, W.O.; Alfred, E.R. A study of stonefish (Synanceja) stings in Singapore with a review of the venomous fishes of Malaysia. Singap. Med. J. 1965, 6, 158–163.
Lehmann, D.F.; Hardy, J.C. Stonefish envenomation. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 329, 510–511.
Ling, S.K.K.; Cheng, S.C.; Yen, C.H. Stonefish envenomation with acute carpal tunnel syndrome. Hong Kong Med. J. 2009, 15, 471–473.
Tay, T.K.W.; Chan, H.Z.; Ahmad, T.S.T.; Teh, K.K.; Low, T.H.; Wahab, N.A. Stonefish envenomation of hand with impending compartment syndrome. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 2016, 11, 1–4.
Ghanem, H.; Khan, M.T.; Al-Ghanem, S.; Al-Qasem, G. Stonefish (Synanceiea verrucosa) envenomation in the Kingdom of Bahrain. J. Bahrain Med. Soc. 2019, 31, 5–9.
Dall, G.F.; Barclay, K.L.; Knight, D. Severe sequelae after stonefish envenomation. Surgeon 2006, 4, 384–385.
Nistor, A.; Giè, O.; Biegger, P.; Fusetti, C.; Lucchina, S. Surgical vacuum-assisted closure for treatment of dramatic case of stonefish envenomation. Chin. J. Traumatol. Engl. Ed. 2010, 13, 250–252.
Téot, L.; Meaume, S.; Akita, S.; Ennis, W.J.; del Marmol, V. Skin Necrosis; Springer-Verlag: Wien, Austria, 2015.
Smith, J.L.B. Two rapid fatalities from stonefish stabs. Am. Soc. Ichthyol. Herpetol. 1957, 3, 249.
Shiomi, K.; Hosaka, M.; Fujita, S.; Yamanaka, H.; Kikuchi, T. Venoms from six species of marine fish: Lethal and hemolytic activities and their neutralization by commercial stonefish antivenom. Mar. Biol. 1989, 103, 285–289.
Sutherland, S.K. Antivenom use in Australia. Med. J. Aust. 1992, 157, 734–739.
Church, J.E.; Hodgson, W.C. Stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) antivenom: In vitro efficacy and clinical use. J. Toxicol. Toxin Rev. 2003, 22, 69–76.
Ciscotto, P.H.C.; Rates, B.; Silva, D.A.F.; Richardson, M.; Silva, L.P.; Andrade, H.; Donato, M.F.; Cotta, G.A.; Maria, W.S.; Rodrigues, R.J.; et al. Venomic analysis and evaluation of antivenom cross-reactivity of South American Micrurus species. J. Proteomics 2011, 74, 1810–1825.
Church, J.E.; Hodgson, W.C. The pharmacological activity of fish venoms. Toxicon 2002, 40, 1083–1093.
Hahn, S.T.; Connor, J.M.O. An investigation of the biological activity of bullrout (Notesthes robusta) venom. Toxicon 2000, 38, 79–89.
Wiener, S. Observations on the venom of the stone fish (Synanceja trachynis). Med. J. Aust. 1959, 46, 620–627.
Saunders, P.R.; Tokes, L. Purification and properties of the lethal fraction of the venom of the stonefish Synanceia horrida (Linnaeus). Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1961, 52, 527–532.
Harris, R.J.; Youngman, N.J.; Chan, W.; Bosmans, F.; Cheney, K.L.; Fry, B.G. Getting stoned: Characterisation of the coagulotoxic and neurotoxic effects of reef stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) venom. Toxicol. Lett. 2021, 16–22.
Church, J.E.; Hodgson, W.C. Dose-dependent cardiovascular and neuromuscular effects of stonefish (Synanceja trachynis) venom. Toxicon 2000, 38, 391–407.
Garnier, P.; Goudey-Perrière, F.; Breton, P.; Dewulf, C.; Petek, F.; Perrière, C. Enzymatic properties of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa Bloch and Schneider, 1801) venom and purification of a lethal, hypotensive and cytolytic factor. Toxicon 1995, 33, 143–155.
Saggiomo, S.L.; Zelenka, C.; Seymour, J. Relationship between food and venom production in the estuarine stonefish Synanceia horrida. Toxicon 2017, 125, 19–23.
Chippaux, J.P.; Williams, V.; White, J. Snake venom variability: Methods of study, results and interpretation. Toxicon 1991, 29, 1279–1303.
Winter, K.L.; Isbister, G.K.; McGowan, S.; Konstantakopoulos, N.; Seymour, J.E.; Hodgson, W.C. A pharmacological and biochemical examination of the geographical variation of Chironex fleckeri venom. Toxicol. Lett. 2010, 192, 419–424.
Duran, L.H.; Rymer, T.L.; Wilson, D.T. Variation in venom composition in the Australian funnel-web spiders Hadronyche valida. Toxicon X 2020, 8.
Kalapothakis, E.; Chávez-Olórtegui, C. Venom variability among several Tityus serrulatus specimens. Toxicon 1997, 35, 1523–1529.
Russell, F.E. Marine toxins and venomous and poisonous marine animals. Adv. Mar. Biol. 1965, 3, 255–384.
Poh, C.H.; Yuen, R.; Khoo, H.E.; Chung, M.; Gwee, M.; Gopalakrishnakone, P. Purification and partial characterization of stonustoxin (lethal factor) from Synanceja horrida venom. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part B Biochem. 1991, 99, 793–798.
Ghadessy, F.J.; Chen, D.; Kini, R.M.; Chung, M.C.M.; Jeyaseelan, K.; Khoo, H.E.; Yuen, R. Stonustoxin is a novel lethal factor from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom. cDNA cloning and characterization. J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271, 25575–25581.
Kreger, A.S. Detection of a cytolytic toxin in the venom of the stonefish (Synanceia trachynis). Toxicon 1991, 29, 733–743.
Poh, C.H.; Yuen, R.; Chung, M.C.M.; Khoo, H.E. Purification and partial characterization of hyaluronidase from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part B Biochem. 1992, 101, 159–163.
Ziegman, R.; Undheim, E.A.B.; Baillie, G.; Jones, A.; Alewood, P.F. Investigation of the estuarine stonefish (Synanceia horrida) venom composition. J. Proteom. 2019, 201, 12–26.
Ueda, A.; Suzuki, M.; Honma, T.; Nagai, H.; Nagashima, Y.; Shiomi, K. Purification, properties and cDNA cloning of neoverrucotoxin (neoVTX), a hemolytic lethal factor from the stonefish Synanceia verrucosa venom. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Gen. Subj. 2006, 1760, 1713–1722.
Abe, T.; Sumatora, M.; Hashimoto, Y.; Yoshihara, J.; Shimamura, Y.; Fukami, J. Purification and properties of a cardioactive toxin, cardioleputin, from stonefish, Synanceja verrucose. J. Venom. Anim. Toxins 1996, 2, 135–149.
Kato, K.; Nakagawa, H.; Shinohara, M.; Ohura, K. Purification of a novel lectin from the dorsal spines of the stonefish, Synanceia verrucose. J. Osaka Dent. Univ. 2016, 50, 55–61.
Madokoro, M.; Ueda, A.; Kiriake, A.; Shiomi, K. Properties and cDNA cloning of a hyaluronidase from the stonefish Synanceia verrucosa venom. Toxicon 2011, 58, 285–292.
Deakins, D.E.; Saunders, P.R. Purification of the lethal fraction of the venom of the stonefish Synanceja horrida (Linnaeus). Toxicon 1967, 4.
Saunders, P.R.; Rothman, S.; Medrano, V.A.; Chin, H.P. Cardiovascular actions of venom of the stonefish Synanceja horrida. Am. J. Physiol. 1962, 203, 429–432.
Shiomi, K.; Hosaka, M.; Kikuchi, T. Properties of a lethal factor in stonefish Synanceia verrucosa venom. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi Jpn. Ed. 1993, 59, 1099.
Wahsha, M.A.; Al-Najjar, T.H.; Al-Tarawneh, H.; Khalaf, M.A.; Saad, A. Biochemical and histological observations of lung injury after stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) envenom in BALB/c mice. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2017, 26, 7204–7208.
Khalil, A.M.; Wahsha, M.A.; Khadra, K.M.A.; Khalaf, M.A.; Al-Najjar, T.H. Biochemical and histopathological effects of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) venom in rats. Toxicon 2018, 142, 45–51.
Garnier, P.; Sauviat, M.P.; Goudey-Perriere, F.; Perriere, C. Cardiotoxicity of verrucotoxin, a protein isolated from the venom of Synanceia verrucose. Toxicon 1997, 35, 47–55.
Garnier, P.; Ducancel, F.; Ogawa, T.; Boulain, J.; Goudey-Perrière, F.; Perrière, C.; Ménez, A. Complete amino-acid sequence of the β-subunit of VTX from venom of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) as identified from cDNA cloning experiments. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Protein Struct. Mol. Enzymol. 1997, 1337, 1–5.
Calvete, J.J.; Fasoli, E.; Sanz, L.; Boschetti, E.; Righetti, P.G. Exploring the venom proteome of the western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox, via snake venomics and combinatorial peptide ligand library approaches. J. Proteome Res. 2009, 8, 3055–3067.
Tu, A.T.; Hendon, R.R. Characterization of lizard venom hyaluronidase and evidence for its action as a spreading factor. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1983, 76, 377–383.
Sugahara, K.; Yamada, S.; Sugiura, M.; Takeda, K.; Yuen, R.; Khoo, H.E.; Poh, C.H. Identification of the reaction products of the purified hyaluronidase from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom,” Biochem. J. 1992, 283, 99–104.
Ng, H.C.; Ranganathan, S.; Chua, K.L.; Khoo, H.E. Cloning and molecular characterization of the first aquatic hyaluronidase, SFHYA1, from the venom of stonefish (Synanceja horrida). Gene 2005, 346, 71–81.
Garnier, P.; Grosclaude, J.; Goudey-Perrière, F.; Gervat, V.; Gayral, P.; Jacquot, C.; Perrière, C. Presence of norepinephrine and other biogenic amines in stonefish venom. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Appl. 1996, 685, 364–369.
Vijavan, M.; Chandra, N. Lectins. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 1999, 9, 707–714.
Sauviat, M.P.; Garnier, P.; Goudey-Perriere, F.; Perriere, C. Does crude venom of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) activate β-adrenoceptors in the frog heart muscle? Toxicon 1995, 33, 1207–1213.
Wang, J.W.; Yazawa, K.; Hao, L.Y.; Onoue, Y.; Kameyama, M. Verrucotoxin inhibits KATP channels in cardiac myocytes through a muscarinic M3 receptor-PKC pathway. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2007, 563, 172–179.
O’Donnell, S.R.; Wanstall, J.C. Pharmacological experiments demonstrate that toad (Bufo marinus) atrial beta-adrenoceptors are not identical with mammalian beta2- or beta1-adrenoceptors. Life Sci. 1982, 31, 701–708.
Austin, L.; Cairncross, K.D.; McCallum, I.A. Some pharmacological actions of the venom of the stonefish ‘Synanceja horrida’. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn 1961, 131, 339–347.
Hopkins, B.J.; Hodgson, W.C.; Sutherland, S.K. Evidence for adrenergic and tachykinin activity in venom of the stonefish (Synanceia trachynis). Toxicon 1996, 34, 541–554.
Low, K.S.Y.; Gwee, M.C.E.; Yuen, R.; Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Khoo, H.E. Stonustoxin: A highly potent endothelium-dependent vasorelaxant in the rat. Toxicon 1993, 31, 1471–1478.
Liew, H.C.; Khoo, H.E.; Moore, P.K.; Bhatia, M.; Lu, J.; Moochhala, S.M. Synergism between hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and nitric oxide (NO) in vasorelaxation induced by stonustoxin (SNTX), a lethal and hypotensive protein factor isolated from stonefish Synanceja horrida venom. Life Sci. 2007, 80, 1664–1668.
Sung, J.M.L.; Low, K.S.Y.; Khoo, H.E. Characterization of the mechanism underlying stonustoxin-mediated relaxant response in the rat aorta in vitro. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2002, 63, 1113–1118.
Seto, M.H.; Liu, H.L.C.; Zajchowski, D.A.; Whitlow, M. Protein fold analysis of the B30.2-like domain. Proteins Struct. Funct. Genet. 1999, 35, 235–249.
Rosenbaum, D.M.; Rasmussen, S.G.F.; Kobilka, B.K. The structure and function of G-protein-coupled receptors. Nature 2009, 459, 356–363.
Yazawa, K.; Wang, J.W.; Hao, L.Y.; Onoue, Y.; Kameyama, M. Verrucotoxin, a stonefish venom, modulates calcium channel activity in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2007, 151, 1198–1203.
Madamanchi, A. Β-adrenergic receptor signaling in cardiac function and heart failure. McGill J. Med. 2007, 10, 99–104.
Rizzi, A.; Gobeil, F.; Calo, G.; Inamura, N.; Regoli, D. FR 173657: A new, potent, nonpeptide kinin B2 receptor antagonist. An in vitro study. Hypertension 1997, 29, 951–956.
Calixto, J.B.; Medeiros, R.; Fernandes, E.S.; Ferreira, J.; Cabrini, D.A.; Campos, M.M. Kinin B1 receptors: Key G-protein-coupled receptors and their role in inflammatory and painful processes. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2004, 143, 803–818.
Lewis, G.P. Plasma kinins and inflammation. Metabolism 1964, 13, 1256–1263.
Sauviat, M.P.; Meunier, F.A.; Kreger, A.; Molgó, J. Effects of trachynilysin, a protein isolated from stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) venom, on frog atrial heart muscle. Toxicon 2000, 38, 945–959.
Zieglgänsberger, W. Substance P and pain chronicity. Cell Tissue Res. 2019, 375, 227–241.
Austin, L.; Gillis, R.G.; Youatt, G. Stonefish venom: Some biochemical and chemical observations. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1965, 43, 79–90.
Khoo, H.E.; Hon, W.M.; Lee, S.H.; Yuen, R. Effects of stonustoxin (lethal factor from Synanceja horrida venom) on platelet aggregation. Toxicon 1995, 33, 1033–1041.
Chen, D.; Kini, R.M.; Yuen, R.; Khoo, H.E. Haemolytic activity of stonustoxin from stonefish (Synanceia horrida) venom: Pore formation and the role of cationic amino acid residues. Biochem. J. 1997, 325, 685–691.
Ouanounou, G.; Mattei, C.; Meunier, F.A.; Kreger, A.S.; Molgó, J. Trachynilysin, a protein neurotoxin isolated from stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) venom, increases spontaneous quantal acetylcholine release from Torpedo marmorata neuromuscular junctions. Cybium Int. J. Ichthyol. 2000, 24 (Suppl. 3), 149–156.
Wahsha, M.; Al-Tarawneh, H.; Khalaf, M.; Al-Najjar, T.; Al-Zyoud, W. Histological and functional renal alterations caused by Synanceia verrucosa venom in mice. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2019, 28, 5294–5300.
Ellisdon, A.M.; Reboul, C.F.; Panjikar, S.; Huynh, K.; Oellig, C.A.; Winter, K.L.; Dunstone, M.A.; Hodgson, W.C.; Seymour, J.; Dearden, P.K.; et al. Stonefish toxin defines an ancient branch of the perforin-like superfamily. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 15360–15365.
Ouanounou, G.; Malo, M.; Stinnakre, J.; Kreger, A.S.; Molgó, J. Trachynilysin, a neurosecretory protein isolated from stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) venom, forms nonselective pores in the membrane of NG108-15 cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 39119–39127.
Fagone, P.; Jackowski, S. Membrane phospholipid synthesis and endoplasmic reticulum function. J. Lipid Res. 2009, 50, S311–S316.
Khoo, H.E.; Chen, D.; Yuen, R. Role of free thiol groups in the biological activities of stonustoxin, a lethal factor from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom. Toxicon 1998, 36, 469–476.
Khoo, H.E.; Chen, D.; Yuen, R. The role of cationic amino acid residues in the lethal activity of stonustoxin from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 1998, 44, 643–646.
Yew, W.S.; Khoo, H.E. The role of tryptophan residues in the hemolytic activity of stonustoxin, a lethal factor from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom. Biochimie 2000, 82, 251–257.
Yuen, R.; Cai, B.; Khoo, H.E. Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against stonustoxin from Synanceja horrida. Toxicon 1995, 33, 1557–1564.
Low, K.S.Y.; Gwee, M.C.E.; Yuen, R. Neuromusclar effects of the venom of the stonefish synanceja horrida. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1990, 183, 574.
Low, K.S.Y.; Gwee, M.C.E.; Yuen, R.; Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Khoo, H.E. Stonustoxin: Effects on neuromuscular function in vitro and in vivo. Toxicon 1994, 32, 573–581.
Kreger, A.S.; Molgó, J.; Comella, J.X.; Hansson, B.; Thesleff, S. Effects of stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) venom on murine and frog neuromuscular junctions. Toxicon 1993, 31, 307–317.
Meunier, F.A.; Mattei, C.; Chameau, P.; Lawrence, G.; Colasante, C.; Kreger, A.S.; Dolly, J.O.; Molgó, J. Trachynilysin mediates SNARE-dependent release of catecholamines from chromaffin cells via external and stored Ca2+. J. Cell Sci. 2000, 113, 1119–1125.
Rosenthal, L.; Meldolesi, J. A-Latrotoxin and Related Toxins. Pharmacol. Ther. 1989, 42, 115–134.
Renner, P.; Caratsch, C.G.; Waser, P.G.; Lazarovici, P.; Primor, N. Presynaptic effects of the Pardaxins, polypeptides isolated from the gland secretion of the flatfish Pardachirus marmoratus. Neuroscience 1987, 23, 319–325.
Spira, M.E.; Klein, M.; Yarom, Y.; Castel, M. Ultrastructural changes accompanying the disturbances of neuromuscular transmission caused by Pardachirus toxin. Neuroscience 1976, 1, 117–124.
Shai, Y. Pardaxin: Channel formation by a shark repellant peptide from fish. Toxicology 1994, 87, 109–129.
Akopian, A.N.; Sivilotti, L.; Wood, J.N. A tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel expressed by sensory neurons. Nature 1996, 379, 257–262.
Tate, S.; Benn, S.; Hick, C.; Trezise, D.; John, V.; Mannion, R.J.; Costigan, M.; Plumpton, C.; Grose, D.; Gladwell, Z.; et al. Two sodium channels contribute to the TTX-R sodium current in primary sensory neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 1998, 1, 653–655.
Jami, S.; Erickson, A.; Brierley, S.M.; Vetter, I. Pain-causing venom peptides: Insights into sensory neuron pharmacology. Toxins 2018, 10, 15.
Flecker, H. Injuries from stone fish. Med. J. Aust. 1956, 43, 371–373.
Jurat, D.R.; Copson, D.G.; Wood, F.M. First aid protocols for Stonefish stings: A burn’s risk case study. Burn. Open 2019, 3, 147–149.
Isbister, G.K. Venomous fish stings in tropical Northern Australia. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 2001, 19, 561–565.
Rishpon, A.; Cohen, Z.; Brenner, S. Neuroma formation and toe amputation resulting from stonefish envenomation. Arch. Dermatol. 2008, 144, 1076–1077.
Ongkili, D.F.; Cheah, P.K. Hot water immersion as a treatment for stonefish sting: A case report. Malays. Fam. Physician 2013, 8, 28–32.
Phleps, D.R. Stone-fish poisoning. Med. J. Aust. 1960, 47, 293–294.
Tang, W.M.; Fung, K.K.; Cheng, V.C.; Lucke, L. Rapidly progressive necrotising fasciitis following a stonefish sting: A report of two cases. J. Orthop. Surg. 2006, 14, 67–70.
Smith, J.L.B. A case of poisoning by the stonefish, Synanceja verrucose. Copeia 1951, 1951, 207.
Akbora, H.D.; Çiçek, B.A.; Ayas, D. The first record of Synanceia verrucosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801 and Pagrus auriga Valencienne, 1843 from Cyprus. J. Black Sea Mediterr. Environ. 2021, 27, 109–116.
Bariche, M.; Sayar, N.; Balistreri, P. Records of two non-indigenous fish species Synanceia verrucosa Bloch and Schneider, 1801 and Acanthurus sohal (Forsskål, 1775) from the Gaza strip (eastern Mediterranean Sea). BioInvasions Rec. 2019, 8, 699–705.
Edelist, D.; Spanier, E.; Golani, D. Evidence for the occurrence of the indo-pacific stonefish, synanceia verrucosa (actinopterygii: Scorpaeniformes: Synanceiidae), in the mediterranean sea. Acta Ichthyol. Piscat. 2011, 41, 129–131.
Crocetta, F.; Agius, D.; Balistreri, P.; Bariche, M.; Bayhan, Y.; Çakir, M.; Ciriaco, S.; Corsini-Foka, M.; Deidun, A.; el Zrelli, R.; et al. New Mediterranean biodiversity records. Mediterr. Mar. Sci. 2015, 16, 682–702.
Ibrahim, A.; Alshawy, F.; Hussein, C. Stonefish synanceia verrucosa bloch & schneider, 1801 (Actinopterygii: Synanceiidae): The first record in the syrian coast and the fourth in the Mediterranean. Int. J. Aquat. Biol. 2019, 7, 383–386.
Bilecenoglu, M. First sighting of the Red Sea originated stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) from Turkey. J. Black Sea Mediterr. 2012, 18, 76–82. Available online: .
Scaps, P.; Scott, C. An update to the list of coral reef fishes from Koh Tao, Gulf of Thailand. Check List 2014, 10, 1123–1133.
Atlas of Living Australia 1. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 2. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 3. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 4. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 5. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 6. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 7. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Le Mare, D.W. Poisonous Malayan fish. Med. J. Malaya 1952, 7, 1–8.
Atlas of Living Australia 8. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 9. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Fewings, D.; Squire, L. Notes on reproduction in the estuarine stonefish Synanceia horrida. Live Reef Fish Inf. Bull. 1999, 5, 31–33.
Atlas of Living Australia 10. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 11. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 12. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 13. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 14. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 15. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 16. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Atlas of Living Australia 17. Available online: (accessed on 19 November 2020).
Osmany, H.B.; Moazzam, M. Review of stonefishes of family Synanceidae from Pakistan with a new record of Synanceia nana Eschmeyer and Rama-Rao, 1973. Int. J. Biol. Biotechnol. 2018, 15, 173–184.