Potential Usage of Edible Mushrooms: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 3 by Ron Wang and Version 4 by Ron Wang.

Currently, the food and agricultural sectors are concerned about environmental problems caused by raw material waste, and they are looking for strategies to reduce the growing amount of waste disposal. Now, approaches are being explored that could increment and provide value-added products from agricultural waste to contribute to the circular economy and environmental protection. Edible mushrooms have been globally appreciated for their medicinal properties and nutritional value, but during the mushroom production process nearly one-fifth of the mushroom gets wasted. Therefore, improper disposal of mushrooms and untreated residues can cause fungal disease. The residues of edible mushrooms, being rich in sterols, vitamin D2, amino acids, and polysaccharides, among others, makes it underutilized waste. Most of the published literature has primarily focused on the isolation of bioactive components of these edible mushrooms; however, utilization of waste or edible mushrooms themselves, for the production of value-added products, has remained an overlooked area. Waste of edible mushrooms also represents a disposal problem, but they are a rich source of important compounds, owing to their nutritional and functional properties. Researchers have started exploiting edible mushroom by-products/waste for value-added goods with applications in diverse fields. Bioactive compounds obtained from edible mushrooms are being used in media production and skincare formulations. Furthermore, diverse applications from edible mushrooms are also being explored, including the synthesis of biosorbent, biochar, edible films/coating, probiotics, nanoparticles and cosmetic products. 

  • edible mushrooms
  • waste valorization
  • food products
  • industrial applications

1. Introduction

Mushrooms have long been stated as a gourmet food, especially for its subtle flavor and taste, and they have been regarded as a culinary wonder by humankind. There are 2000 different mushrooms, out of which 25 are usually consumed as food, and only a few are commercially grown
[1]
. Mushrooms are also used as nutraceutical foods for their high functional and nutritional value. Moreover, they have gained considerable attention due to their economic importance as well as organoleptic and medicinal properties
[2][3]
. It is not easy to differentiate between medicinal and edible mushrooms, as few medicinal mushrooms are edible, and many common edible mushrooms have therapeutic potential
[4]
. The most widely cultivated mushroom is Agaricus bisporus, followed by Flammulina velutipes, Lentinus edodes and Pleurotus spp. The crude protein content of edible mushrooms is usually high, but it varies greatly and is affected by factors such as species and stage of development of the mushroom
[5]
. The free amino acid level of mushrooms is usually low, ranging from 7.14 to 12.3 mg g
−1
in dry edible mushrooms, and contributes to the main flavor properties of mushrooms
[6]
. The essential amino acid profiles of mushrooms reveal that the proteins are deficient in sulfur-containing amino acids, including methionine and cysteine. However, these edible mushrooms are comparatively rich in threonine and valine. Several vitamins such as folates, niacin and riboflavin are found in abundance in cultivated mushrooms. Mushrooms have a higher vitamin B2 content compared to most vegetables, making them a good vitamin source
[7]
. The bioavailable form of folate in mushrooms is folic acid
[8]
. Cultivated mushrooms also comprise vitamin B1 and vitamin C in small quantities and traces of vitamin B12
[7]
. Edible mushrooms contain a low amount of total soluble sugars, whereas oligosaccharides are found abundantly
[9]
. The carbohydrate content of edible mushrooms ranges from 35 to 70% by dry weight and varies from species to species. The fatty acid level ranges from 2 to 8% in mushrooms. Additionally, polyunsaturated fatty acids account for ≥75% of total fatty acids, in contrast to saturated fatty acids, and palmitic acid is the major saturated fatty acid
[10]
.
Many by-products (caps, stipes, spent mushroom substrate) are produced during mushroom production, which cause environmental pollution and increase industry management costs
[11]
. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) encompasses extracellular enzymes, fungal mycelia and other substances
[12]
. The circular economy concept of industrial ecology is regarded as the leading principle for developing new products by using waste as a raw material
[13]
. From economic and environmental perspectives, the waste produced during mushroom production often leads to massive damage to valuable organic constituents and raises severe management complications. Thus, there is a need to exploit mushroom residues to extract valuable compounds that could be used in different industries, such as food, cosmetics, agricultural and textile industries, as depicted in Figure 1. The current review aims to summarize information related to edible mushrooms and discuss the utilization of edible mushrooms and their residues as a valuable good for future industrial applications.
Jof 07 00427 g001 550
Figure 1.
Utilization of edible mushrooms and their residues in novel industrial products.

2. Edible Mushrooms Fortified in Ready-to-Eat and Ready-to-Cook Foods

As the lifestyle of people is changing dramatically (due to liberalization policies, dual incomes, separate living of couples, innovative kitchen applications, media proliferation, etc.), the demand for convenient and health-promoting food is also increasing. Nowadays, people prefer fast and simple cooking methods instead of spending a long time in the kitchen
[14]
. Mushroom powder can be used in the food industry, especially in preparing baked goods (bread, biscuits and cakes) and breakfast cereals. The supplementation of mushroom powder in bakery products substantially increases crude fibers, minerals (calcium, copper, magnesium, manganese, potassium, phosphorus, iron and zinc), proteins and vitamins
[15]
. These components impart the abilities to fight tumors, lower blood pressure and blood sugar levels, maintain cholesterol levels and improve the immune system to fight against infection
[16]
. Rathore et al.
[17]
prepared cookies fortified with Calocybe indica mushroom, and the results depicted a decrease in starch hydrolysis and glycemic index. Wheatshiitake noodles enhanced the nutritional profile and reduced the glycemic index of foods
[18]
. The different food products developed by using mushrooms are listed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Mushrooms fortified in ready-to-eat (RTE) and ready-to-cook (RTC) foods.
Edible Mushroom Common Name Scientific Name Food Product Beneficial Effects Reference
Milky white Calocybe indica
Flammulina velutipes polysaccharides, which acted as a barrier to oxygen and water vapor, had the lowest elongation at break values and highest tensile strength for future use in food packaging industries. Table 2 lists some edible films and coatings derived from mushrooms.
Table 2.
Mushrooms and their residue-based edible film/coatings.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Product Used Compounds Key Findings References
Cookies Increase in protein, fiber, minerals and β-glucan, phenolic, flavonoids and antioxidants; decrease in starch, reduction in glycemic index [17]
White button Agaricus bisporus Fruit bars Chitosan Increased antioxidant capacity, ascorbic acid content, fungal growth prevention and firmness [45]
Oyster Pleurotus sajor-caju Biscuits Increase in concentration of protein, dietary fiber, ash and reduction in carbohydrate [
Lentinula edodes, Flammulina velutipes ND Insoluble dietary fibers Highest tensile strength and an effective barrier to water vapor [48]
Indian oyster Pleurotus pulmonarius ND Flour Significant barrier properties and mechanical strength [49]
ND—not defined; CFU—colony-forming unit.

4. Mushrooms as a Source of Prebiotics for Food Supplementation

The consumption of high dietary fiber food has gained considerable interest owing to its ability to reduce triglycerides and blood cholesterol via the gut microbiome. A diet rich in fibers acts as a substrate for microbes and aids in their proliferation. Thus, microbial digestion products enter the systemic circulation and help in maintaining energy homeostasis
[50]
. Pleurotus spp. (Oyster mushroom) comprises soluble fiber compounds, particularly a small amount of glucans (chitin and galactomannans) and non-starch glucans, favoring the proliferation of lactobacilli
[51]
. Edible mushrooms are stated to have carbohydrates, which help them to act as prebiotics
[52]
. The supplementation of oyster mushroom and probiotics in poultry feed has been reported to show beneficial, synergetic effects on the immune response, performance and serum lipids in broiler chickens
[53]
. The blend of prebiotics and probiotics also is beneficial because of the synergistic effect between them
[54]
. Van Doan et al.
[52]
conducted a study to determine the effects of dietary supplements Pleurotus eryngii (as a prebiotic), Eryngii mushroom and Lactobacillus plantarum (as a probiotic), alone as well as in combination, on the innate immune response, growth and protection against Aeromonas hydrophila. The results showed stimulation in growth, immunity and disease resistance against Pangasius bocourti. Table 3 lists studies of different mushrooms and dietary supplementation with probiotics.
Table 3.
Applications of mushrooms as prebiotics.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Probiotic Used Form of Mushroom Used Applications References
White button Agaricus bisporus Probiotics mixture (Protexin 6 × 107CFU gm−1) Powder Lowered total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglyceride concentrations, oxidative stress and dyslipidemia in hypercholesterolemic rats [50]
Wood ear/Jew’s ear19]
White button Agaricus bisporus Fresh-cut melons Chitosan Auricularia auricula Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5, Bifidobacterium bifidum
−1
)
[86]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus 80 °C/ND Showed maximum biosorption against Ni2+ (20.71 mg g−1) [87]
King trumpet Pleurotus eryngii 60 °C/24 h Showed maximum biosorption against Pb2+ (3.30 mg g−1) [88]
Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum 60 °C/72 h Maximum biosorption against malachite green (40.65 mg g−1), safranine T (33.00 mg g−1), and methylene (22.37 mg g−1) [89]
King trumpet Pleurotus eryngii 60 °C/24 h Removed 88.38% of NO3− [90]
RT—room temperature; ND—not defined.

7. Edible Mushrooms Derived Biochar

Biochar is a stable, carbon-rich solid prepared by thermochemical decomposition or pyrolysis of organic material at high temperatures in an anaerobic environment
[44]
. The highly porous structure permits the extraction of humic and fluvic-like substances from biochar
[91]
. Furthermore, its molecular structure demonstrates high microbial and chemical stability
[92]
, and physical and chemical properties depend on several factors such as the feedstock form, residence time, pyrolysis and furnace temperature
[93][94]
. A wide range of common raw materials are used as the feedstock, including wood chips, organic wastes, plant residues and poultry manure
[95]
. The elemental composition of biochar generally includes carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and, to a lesser extent, K, Ca, Na and Mg
[96]
. Biochar is a polar or non-polar material with a high specific surface area and good affinity towards inorganic ions such as phosphate, nitrate and heavy metal ions
[97][98]
. Different studies have reported on biochar production from a variety of edible mushrooms and their spent substrates (Table 6).
Table 6.
Applications of biochar derived from mushrooms and their residues.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Process and Conditions Required for Biochar Formation Applications References
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Production Conditions Applications References
Oyster, Shiitake Pleurotus ostreatus, Lentinula edodes Pyrolysis at 700 °C for 2 h
Oyster Pleurotus sp.Adsorbed 326mg g−1 and 398mg g−1 of lead Pb(II) from the water [ Hydrothermal/120 °C/4 h99]
Selective sensitivity for Pb2+; Antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Anti-cancer activity against breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) [118] Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum Pyrolysis at 650 °C for 2 hEnhance fruit firmness, inhibit off-flavors and reduce the microbial counts (up to 4 log CFU g−1). Bb-12 Extract Enhancement in the survival rate of probiotics toabout 0.43 and 0.51 log CFU g−1[47] ; improved probiotic protection and functional properties of symbiotic yogurt [55]
White button, Oyster Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus Spent mushroom substrate, and Sphagnum peat Growing media for tomato, courgette and pepper Showed maximal adsorption against Pb2+ (262.76 mg g−1) and Cd2+ (75.82 mg g−1)[67] White button
[100] Velvet shank Flammulina velutipes Spent mushroom substrate, and chicken manure compost Growing media for honeydew melon [68]
Velvet shank Flammulina velutipes Spent mushroom substrate, calcium carbonate, wheat bran, and yeast extract and inorganic salts Production media for Bacillus thuringiensis [69]
Oyster Pleurotusf lorida
]
. This mechanism has gained significant attention among researchers because of its ability to immobilize heavy metals, which can contaminate the water as they are discharged untreated from electroplating, mining industries and metal processing industries. Various processes that explain the mechanism of how these biosorbents function in removing pollutants are expressed by the natural biomass complex compendium. Several functional groups (amides, amine, carboxyl, carbonyl, hydroxyl, sulfonate, sulfhydryl, phosphate and phenolic groups) are attached to these biosorbents to sequestrate contaminants
[77][78]
. Various studies were done to produce biosorbents from edible mushrooms to remove metal ions and dyes from an aqueous solution, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5.
Mushroom-derived biosorbents and their applications.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Drying Temperature/Time Applications References
Oyster Pleurotus florida RT/24 h Showed 100% removal of Fe2+ from the water sample
Velvet shank Flammulina velutipes White button Agaricus bisporus Pyrolysis at 750 °C for 3 h Showed maximal adsorption against Cu2+(65.2 mg g−1), Cd2+(76.3 mg g−1), and Zn2+(44.4 mg g−1) in water [101]
ND ND Pyrolysis at 300 °C for 90 min Showed maximal adsorption against Pb2+ (21.0 mg g−1), Cu2+(18.8 mg g−1), Cd2+(11.2 mg g−1) and Ni2+(9.8 mg g−1) in water [102]
ND ND Pyrolysis at 450 °C for 4 h Showed maximal adsorption against crystal violet (1057mg g−1) in wastewater [103]
ND ND Pyrolysis at 500 °C for 2 h Showed maximal adsorption against fluoride (36.5 mg g−1) in water [104]
ND—not defined.

8. Edible Mushrooms Derived Nanoparticles (NPs)

The high concentrations of extracellular enzymes serve as bio-reducing and stabilizing agents for NP synthesis. NPs made from mushrooms are of better quality than those made from bacteria. Metal NPs synthesized using constituents such as enzymes and metabolites secreted by mushroom cells reduce the toxicity of substances
[105][106]
. The use of NPs is rising, especially in biomedicine and pharmaceuticals, because of their unique physicochemical properties. In the bottom-up approach, biogenic NPs are synthesized, resulting in atoms/compounds that act as the building blocks and possess the ability to self-assemble to form the final product
[44]
. Numerous metal oxide/noble metal NPs have been developed using extracts of edible mushrooms, as listed in Table 7.
Table 7.
Mushroom-derived nanoparticles and their applications.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Types of Nanoparticles Synthesized Reaction Temperature/Time Morphology Size Applications References
[79
White button Agaricus bisporus]
Copper RT/24 h Spherical 2–10 nm Antibacterial activity against Enterobacter aerogens; Antioxidant activity using DPPH, and ABTS; Anti-cancer activity against cancer cell lines SW620 (colon cancer) [107] White button Agaricus bisporus 80 °C/24 h
Brown oyster Pleurotus cystidiosus GoldSuccessfully biosorbed Reactive Blue 49 dye (1.85 × 10−4 mol g−1) from water 29 °C/24 h ND ND Antioxidant activity using DPPH, and ABTS [108]
Hydrothermal/250 °C/4 h Sensed Cr6+ with a limit of detection 0.73 µM and volatile organic compounds[80] [119] Shiitake Lentinula edodes Agaricus bisporusChips Improvement in quality attributes (color, sensory evaluation) [20]
Velvet shank Flammulina velutipes ND Saccharomyces cerevisiae Powder Improvement in the meat quality with the incorporation of mushroom and probiotics in the broiler diet [ Oyster Pleurotus florida Gold56 70 °C/1.5 h Spherical 2–14 nm Anti-cancer activity against cancer cell lines A-549 (Human lung carcinoma), K-562 (Human chronic myelogenous leukemia bone marrow), HeLa (Human cervix) and MDA-MB (Human adenocarcinoma mammary gland) [109]
Oyster Pleurotu ssp. Hydrothermal/200 °C/25 h Sensed nitroarenes in water samples [120] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Gold 29 °C/24 h Spherical 22.9 nm Antioxidant activity using DPPH, and ABTS
Paddy straw Volvariella volvacea Hydrothermal/200 °C/25 h Sensed Pb2 with limit of detection 12 nM and for Fe3+ 16 nM [121][108]
ND ND Hydrothermal/200 °C/6 h Sensed hyaluronic acid and hyaluronidase [122]
ND—not defined.

10. Edible Mushrooms Based Skin Care Formulations

Cosmetics are personal care products that are used to cleanse and beautify the skin
[123]
. The demand for cosmetics containing natural ingredients is increasing due to their organic, healthier and environmentally friendly characteristics
[124]
. Lentinan, carotenoids, ceramides, schizophyllan and ω-3, ω-6 and ω-9 fatty acids as well as resveratrol obtained from macro fungi, especially mushrooms, are now paving their way into cosmetics
[125][126]
. These are reported to treat beauty issues such as fine lines, wrinkles, uneven tone and texture due to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory traits. There are few studies where edible mushrooms are used in skincare formulations, as compiled in Table 9.
Table 9.
Mushroom-based skincare formulations.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Product Base Applications References
White button, Oyster, Shiitake Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Lentinula edodes Cream Anti-inflammatory; anti-tyrosinase; antioxidant and antibacterial activity [127]
Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum Cream Anti-tyrosinase; antioxidant and antibacterial activity [128]
]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Biscuits Enhancement of nutritional quality
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus 40 °C/24 h Showed greater adsorption against Pb2+(85.91 mg g−1) in water [81] [21]
Oyster Pleurotus sajor-caju Lactobacillus fermentum OVL Powder Increase in neutrophil count in rats, decrease in lymphocyte count [57]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus 60 °C/24 h Biosorbed 3.8 mg g−1 of Cd2+ [ White button Agaricus bisporus Ketchup Increase in ash content, crude fiber, protein, total soluble solids, and reducing sugars; decrease in total sugars [22]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus PrimaLac (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium bifidium, Enterococcus faecium) Powder Decrease in abdominal fat on the carcass, increase in HDL concentration in plasma [53] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Jam Increase in total soluble solids, percent acidity and reducing sugar, decrease in pH and non-reducing sugar [23]
White button Agaricus bisporus Mushroom tikki and stuffed mushroom Increase in protein, dietary fiber, antioxidant and phenolic components [24]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus
82] Caterpillar Cordyceps militaris Lactobacillus plantarum Spent mushroom substrate Increase in the specific growth rate, weight gain, final weight in fish fed supplemented diets [58]
Spent mushroom substrate Production media for lignocellulolytic enzymes [70] Shiitake Lentinus edodes 1.0 ×108 CFU g−1(Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium bifdium, Enterococcus faecium) Extract No weight gain in broiler chickens [59]
King oyster Pleurotus eryngii Lactobacillus plantarum Powder Growth stimulation, immunity and disease resistance [52]
LDL—low-density lipoproteins; HDL—high density lipoproteins.

5. Edible Mushrooms Based Media

Nowadays, mushroom processing is the primary solid-state fermentation process in fermentation industries
[60]
. At the commercial level, the processing occurs on a substrate made up of lignocellulose materials (corncobs, sawdust, rye, rice straw and wheat) either alone or in combination with supplements to address nutritional deficiencies
[61][62]
. For instance, approximately 5 kg of SMS is produced, a by-product of mushroom harvest and cultivation, from 1 kg of mushrooms
[63]
. The SMS comprises a high amount of residual nutrients, which pollutes the atmosphere if improperly discarded as waste
[64][65]
. Thus, further treatment and utilization of SMS are essential. Different types of edible mushrooms and their SMS have been used to produce low-cost growth media for various horticultural plants and microorganisms (Table 4).
Table 4.
Mushrooms and their residue-based media.
Edible Mushrooms Common Name Scientific Name Media Composition Purpose/Utilization References
Velvet shank Flammulina velutipes Spent mushroom substrate, perlite, and vermiculite Growing media for tomato and cucumber seedlings [66]
Oyster, Black morels
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Cream Skin fairness [129]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Gel Anti-tyrosinase; antioxidant activity [130] Pleurotus ostreatus, Morchella conica RT/4 days Adsorbed methylene blue (82.81 and 38.47 mg g−1) and for malachite green (64.13 and 39.28 mg g−1) [83] Oyster Pleurotus sajor-caju Gold RT/12 h Spherical 16–18 nm Anti-cancer activity against cancer cell lines HCT-116 (colon cancer)
Snow Tremella fuciformis Gel Hand sanitizer [131][110] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus
Velvet shank Flammulina velutipesSpent mushroom substrate Production media for Lactococcus lactis 60 °C/24 h Maximum removal capacity against copper ions was 15.56 mg g−1[71]
[84] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus
Shiitake Lentinula edodesSpent mushroom substrate, paddy straw, and soybean cake Biopesticide (Trichoderma asperellum) development [ Freeze-dried/24 h72]
Maximum absorption against Congo red was 217.86 mg g−1 [85] Soup ND ND Spent mushroom substrate and peat mossIncrease in nutritional value Growing media for Chinese kale[25]
[73
Oyster]
Pleurotus ostreatus 78 °C/48 h Showed maximum biosorption against uranium ion (19.95 mg g Chestnut Agrocybe aegerita Snacks Manipulation of glycemic

response of individuals		 [26]
ND ND Spent mushroom substrate, perlite, and vermiculite Growing media for lettuce seedlings [74] Oyster Pleurotus sajur-caju Biscuit Increase in the mineral content
ND ND[ Spent mushroom substrate, polished rice, full-fat soybean, and rice bran27]
Production media for arachidonic acid by Mortierella sp. [75] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Vegetable mixture diets Highly acceptable, nutritious, delicious, ready-to-eat diet
ND ND[ Spent mushroom substrate, and poultry cooked bones14]
Production media for solubilizationphosphate by Bacillus megaterium [76] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Processed cheese spreads High moisture, ash and protein content, total viable counts and spore former bacteria was lower in processed cheese supplemented with mushrooms [28]
Oyster
King tuber Pleurotus tuber-regium Selenium RT/24 h Spherical 91–102 nm Anti-cancer activity against gastric adenocarcinoma AGS [111]
White button, Oyster Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus Cream Anti-tyrosinase; antioxidant and antibacterial activity [132] Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Silver 25 °C/48 h Spherical 17.5 nm Anti-cancer activity against cancer cell lines HepG2 (human liver) and MCF-7 (breast) [112]
Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum Silver ND/ND Spherical 15–22 nm Antioxidant activity using DPPH; Antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus hirae, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella pneumophila subsp. Pneumophila; and antifungal activity against Candida albicans [113]
Matsutake Tricholoma matsutake Silver RT/30 min Spherical 10–70 nm Antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli [114]
Milky white, Oyster, White button, Lingzhi Calocybe indica, Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricu sbisporus, Ganoderma lucidum Silver RT/12 h Spherical 80–100 nm Antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus [115]
Pink oyster Pleurotus djamor Titanium oxide RT/20 min Spherical 31 nm Antibacterial activity against Corynebacterium diphtheria, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Staphylococcus aureus; Anti-cancer activity against cancer cell lines A-549 (Human lung carcinoma); larval toxicity against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus [116]Pleurotus ostreatus Biscuit Higher moisture, protein, ash content, higher hardness, darker and redder in color [29]
Increase in total solids, protein, fibers and carbohydrates [30]
Oyster Pleurotus sajor-caju chicken patty Reduction in fat content, no change in protein and β-glucan [31]
White button Agaricus bisporus Pasta Improved antioxidant activity, increase moisture content, carbohydrates, decreased crude fiber, crude protein, and fat [32]
Oyster Pleurotus sajor-caju Cookies High protein content, low-fat content, high fiber, minerals and vitamin content [33]
White button Agaricus bisporus Pasta Decrease in the extent of starch degradation, increase in total phenolic content and antioxidant capacities [34]
White jelly Tremella fuciformis Patty Oil holding capacity of mushroom has a positive effect on cooking yield of patty as well as senses [35]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Instant noodles Increase in protein and fiber content [36]
Polysaccharide High tensile strength, barrier property to water vapor and oxygen [
Pink oyster Pleurotus djamor Zinc oxide RT/24 h Sphere 74.36 nmOyster Pleurotus ostreatus White button Agaricus bisporus Beef burgers Reduction in the fat content of beef burgers [37]
46] Antioxidant activity using DPPH, ABTS, and H2O2; larval toxicity against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus; Antibacterial activity against Corynebacterium diphtheria, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Staphylococcus aureus [ Spreadable processed cheese Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Instant soup premix Rich in protein, crude fiber, minerals and low in fat, carbohydrate and energy value [38]
117] White button Agaricus bisporus Sponge cake Increase in apparent viscosity, volume, springiness and cohesiveness values [39]
Oyster Pleurotus sajor-caju Biscuit Reduction in starch pasting viscosities, starch gelatinization enthalpy value, increases in protein, crude fiber and mineral content [16]
Shiitake Lentinula edodes Noodles Improvement in nutritional profile and reduction in the glycemic index of foods King tuber Pleurotus tuber-regium
Shiitake, Velvet shank [18] Cookies Higher protein, ash, crude fiber, water-soluble vitamins and minerals [40]
Oyster Pleurotus ostreatus Noodles Lower level of carbohydrate, fat, and sodium [41]
King trumpet Pleurotus eryngii Sponge cake Increase in ash and proteincontent [42]
White button, Shitake, Porcini Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes, Boletus edulis Pasta High firmness and tensile strength [43]

3. Edible Mushrooms Based Films/Coatings

Edible films/coatings are thin layers applied on the food surface to extend their shelf-life and preserve their features, functionality and properties at a low cost
[44]
. The mechanical strength and barrier properties of these edible films provide sufficient strength to withstand stress while handling. These films have a promising application in the agricultural, food and pharmaceutical industries. Mushrooms and their residues have many applications in food industries, but significantly fewer studies have been conducted in regards to edible film/coatings. Polysaccharides extracted/derived from edible mushrooms are extensively used in functional foods, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals
[11]
. In this regard, Bilbao-Sainzand his colleagues
[45]
obtained chitin from mushrooms and transformed it to chitosan.
Moreover, layer-by-layer (LbL) electrostatic deposition is used to prepare edible coatings applied to fruit bars. The application of edible mushroom coatings/films has increased the antioxidant capacity, ascorbic acid content, fungal growth prevention and firmness during storage. Additionally, Du et al.
[46]
developed edible films using
ND—not defined.

6. Edible Mushrooms Derived Biosorbents

Biosorption is a process in which a sorbate reacts with biomass or biomaterial (biosorbent), causing sorbate ions to acclimatize on the biosorbents surface and, as a result, lowering the concentration of sorbate in the solution
[44
RT—room temperature; ND—not defined; DPPH-2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl-hydrate; ABTS-2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid).

9. Edible Mushrooms Derived Carbon Dots

Carbon dots (CDs), photoluminescent substances with a size of less than 10 nm, can be synthesized by top-down and bottom-up approaches
[44]
. The top-down synthetic route involves a complex and synthetic condition; a broad carbon structure is broken down using electro-oxidation, acid-assisted chemical oxidation, and laser ablation
[44]
. However, the bottom-up approach, which relies on plants and their by-products instead of the chemicals, is superior compared to the top-down approach. Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, lignin and cellulose are all abundant in biological materials. Edible mushrooms are relatively inexpensive and contain various chemical constituents such as carbon, oxygen, phosphorus and nitrogen, often depicted as carboxyl and amine groups. The presence of carbohydrates, amino acids, polysaccharides, citric acid, flavonoids, lipids, vitamins and proteins make them ideal for CDs development
[118]
. CDs have also shown effectiveness in biomedical applications and energy storage systems, including water purification, pathogen identification, environmental research and heavy metal and additive detection in food (Table 8).
Table 8.
Mushrooms as a carbon source for preparing carbon dots.
 
 

References

  1. Valverde, M.E.; Hernández-Pérez, T.; Paredes-López, O. Edible mushrooms: Improving human health and promoting quality life. Int. J. Microbiol. 2015, 2015, 376387.
  2. Chang, S.T.; Miles, P.G. Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact, 2nd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2008.
  3. Ergönül, P.G.; Akata, I.; Kalyoncu, F.; Ergönül, B. Fatty acid compositions of six wild edible mushroom species. Sci. World J. 2013, 2013, 163964.
  4. Guillamón, E.; García-Lafuente, A.; Lozano, M.; D’Arrigo, M.; Rostagno, M.A.; Villares, A.; Martínez, J.A. Edible mushrooms: Role in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Fitoterapia 2010, 81, 715–723.
  5. Longvah, T.; Deosthale, Y.G. Composition and nutritional studies on edible wild mushroom from Northeast India. Food Chem. 1998, 63, 331–334.
  6. Maga, J.A. Mushroom flavor. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1981, 29, 1–4.
  7. Mattila, P.; Konko, K.; Euvola, M.; Pihlava, J.; Astola, J.; Vahteristo, L. Contents of vitamins, mineral elements and some phenolic compound in cultivated mushrooms. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 42, 2449–2453.
  8. Clifford, A.J.; Heid, M.K.; Peerson, J.M.; Bills, N.D. Bioavailability of food folates and evaluation of food matrix effects with a rat bioassay. J. Nutr. 1991, 121, 445–453.
  9. Bano, Z.; Rajarathnam, S. Pleurotus mushrooms. Part II. Chemical composition, nutritional value, post-harvest physiology, preservation, and role as human food. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1988, 27, 87–158.
  10. Ribeiroa, B.; Pinhoa, P.G.; Andradea, P.B.; Baptistab, P.; Valentao, P. Fatty acid composition of wild edible mushrooms species: A comparative study. Microchem. J. 2009, 93, 29–35.
  11. Antunes, F.; Marçal, S.; Taofiq, O.; Morais, A.M.M.B.; Freitas, A.C.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R.; Pintado, M. Valorization of mushroom by-products as a source of value-added compounds and potential applications. Molecules 2020, 25, 2672.
  12. Lim, S.-H.; Lee, Y.-H.; Kang, H.-W. Efficient recovery of lignocellulolytic enzymes of spent mushroom compost from oyster mushrooms, Pleurotus spp., and potential use in dye decolorization. Mycobiology 2013, 41, 214–220.
  13. Mirabella, N.; Castellani, V.; Sala, S. Current options for the valorization of food manufacturing waste: A review. J. Clean Prod. 2014, 65, 28–41.
  14. Soliman, A.; Abbas, M.; Ahmed, S. Preparation, canning and evaluation process of vegetable mixture diets (ready-to-eat) supplemented with mushroom. Suez Canal Univ. J. Food Sci. 2017, 4, 19–28.
  15. Salehi, F. Characterization of different mushrooms powder and its application in bakery products: A review. Int. J. Food Prop. 2019, 22, 1375–1385.
  16. Ng, S.H.; Robert, S.D.; Ahmad, W.A.N.W.; Ishak, W.R.W. Incorporation of dietary fiber-rich oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju) powder improves postprandial glycaemic response by interfering with starch granule structure and starch digestibility of biscuit. Food Chem. 2017, 227, 358–368.
  17. Rathore, H.; Sehwag, S.; Prasad, S.; Sharma, S. Technological, nutritional, functional and sensorial attributes of the cookies fortified with Calocybe indica mushroom. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2019, 13, 976–987.
  18. Wang, L.; Zhao, H.; Brennan, M.; Guan, W.; Liu, J.; Wang, M.; Brennan, C. In vitro gastric digestion antioxidant and cellular radical scavenging activities of wheat-shiitake noodles. Food Chem. 2020, 330, 127214.
  19. Prodhan, U.K.; Linkon, K.M.M.R.; Al-Amin, M.F.; Alam, M.J. Development and quality evaluation of mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju) enriched biscuits. Emir. J. Food Agric. 2015, 27, 542–547.
  20. Ren, A.; Pan, S.; Li, W.; Chen, G.; Duan, X. Effect of various pretreatments on quality attributes of vacuum-fried shiitake mushroom chips. J. Food Qual. 2018, 2018, 4510126.
  21. Farzana, T.; Mohajan, S. Effect of incorporation of soy flour to wheat flour on nutritional and sensory quality of biscuits fortified with mushroom. Food Sci. Nutr. 2015, 3, 363–369.
  22. Kumar, K.; Ray, A.B. Development and shelf-life evaluation of tomato-mushroom mixed ketchup. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 53, 2236–2243.
  23. Khan, M.U.; Qazi, I.M.; Ahmed, I.; Ullah, S.; Khan, A.; Jamal, S. Development and quality evaluation of banana mushroom blended jam. Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res. Ser. B 2017, 60, 11–18.
  24. Rachappa, P.; Sudharma, D.C.; Chauhan, O.P.; Patki, P.E.; Nagaraj, R.; Naik, S.; Naik, R. Development and evaluation of white button mushroom based snacks. J. Food Process. Technol. 2020, 11, 824.
  25. Mohajan, S.; Orchy, T.N.; Farzana, T. Effect of incorporation of soy flour on functional, nutritional, and sensory properties of mushroom–moringa-supplemented healthy soup. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 6, 549–556.
  26. Brennan, M.A.; Derbyshire, E.; Tiwari, B.K.; Brennan, C.S. Enrichment of extruded snack products with coproducts from chestnut mushroom (Agrocybe aegerita) production: Interactions between dietary fiber, physicochemical characteristics, and glycemic load. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 4396–4401.
  27. Bello, M.; Oluwamukomi, M.O.; Enujiugha, V.N. Nutrient composition and sensory properties of biscuit from mushroom-wheat composite flours. Arch. Curr. Res. Int. 2017, 9, 1–11.
  28. Khider, M.; Seoudi, O.; Abdelaliem, Y.F. Functional processed cheese spreads with high nutritional value as supplemented with fresh and dried mushrooms. Int. J. Nutr Food Sci. 2017, 6, 45–52.
  29. Cornelia, M.; Chandra, J. Utilization of white oyster mushroom powder (Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm.) in the making of biscuit as emergency food product. Eurasia J. Biosci. 2019, 13, 1859–1866.
  30. Shalaby, S.M.; Mohamed, A.G.; Farahat, E.S. Preparation of functional and nutritional spreadable processed cheese fortified with vegetables and mushrooms. Int. J. Curr Res. 2018, 10, 74075–74082.
  31. Rosli, W.I.W.; Solihah, M.A. Nutritional composition and sensory properties of oyster mushroom-based patties packed with biodegradable packaging. Sains Malays. 2014, 43, 65–71.
  32. Chauhan, N.; Vaidya, D.; Gupta, A.; Pandit, A. Fortification of pasta with white button mushroom: Functional and rheological properties. Int. J. Food Ferment. Technol. 2017, 7, 87–96.
  33. Chaudhari, P.D.N.; Wandhekar, S.S.; Shaikh, A.A.; Devkatte, A.N. Preparation and characterization of cookies prepared from wheat flour fortified with mushroom (Pleurotussajor-caju) and spiced with cardamom. Int. J. Res. Anal. Rev. 2018, 5, 386–389.
  34. Lu, X.; Brennan, M.A.; Serventi, L.; Liu, J.; Guan, W.; Brennan, C.S. Addition of mushroom powder to pasta enhances the antioxidant content and modulates the predictive glycaemic response of pasta. Food Chem. 2018, 264, 199–209.
  35. Cha, M.H.; Heo, J.Y.; Lee, C.; Lo, Y.M.; Moon, B. Quality and sensory characterization of white jelly mushroom (Tremella fuciformis) as a meat substitute in pork patty formulation. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2014, 38, 2014–2019.
  36. Arora, B.; Kamal, S.; Sharma, V.P. Nutritional and quality characteristics of instant noodles supplemented with oyster mushroom (P. ostreatus). J. Food Process Preserv. 2018, 42, e13521.
  37. Patinho, I.; Saldaña, E.; Selani, M.M.; de Camargo, A.C.; Merlo, T.C.; Menegali, B.S.; Contreras-Castillo, C.J. Use of Agaricus bisporus mushroom in beef burgers: Antioxidant, flavor enhancer and fat replacing potential. Food Prod. Process Nutr. 2019, 1, 1–15.
  38. Srivastava, A.; Attri, B.; Verma, S. Development and evaluation of instant soup premix using oyster mushroom powder. Mushroom Res. 2019, 28, 65–69.
  39. Salehi, F.; Kashaninejad, M.; Asadi, F.; Najafi, A. Improvement of quality attributes of sponge cake using infrared dried button mushroom. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 53, 1418–1423.
  40. Kolawole, F.L.; Akinwande, B.A.; Ade-Omowaye, B.I.O. Physicochemical properties of novel cookies produced from orange-fleshed sweet potato cookies enriched with sclerotium of edible mushroom (Pleurotus tuber-regium). J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 2020, 19, 174–178.
  41. Parvin, R.; Farzana, T.; Mohajan, S.; Rahman, H.; Rahman, S.S. Quality improvement of noodles with mushroom fortified and its comparison with local branded noodles. NFS J. 2020, 20, 37–42.
  42. Jeong, C.H.; Shim, K.H. Quality characteristics of sponge cakes with addition of Pleurotus eryngii mushroom powders. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr. 2004, 33, 716–722.
  43. Lu, X.; Brennan, M.A.; Serventi, L.; Mason, S.; Brennan, C.S. How the inclusion of mushroom powder can affect the physicochemical characteristics of pasta. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 51, 2433–2439.
  44. Kumar, H.; Bhardwaj, K.; Sharma, R.; Nepovimova, E.; Kuča, K.; Dhanjal, D.S.; Kumar, D. Fruit and vegetable peels: Utilization of high value horticultural waste in novel industrial applications. Molecules 2020, 25, 2812.
  45. Bilbao-Sainz, C.; Chiou, B.-S.; Punotai, K.; Olson, D.; Williams, T.; Wood, D.; Rodov, V.; Poverenov, E.; McHugh, T. Layer-by-layer alginate and fungal chitosan based edible coatings applied to fruit bars. J. Food Sci. 2018, 83, 1880–1887.
  46. Du, H.; Hu, Q.; Yang, W.; Pei, F.; Kimatu, B.M.; Ma, N.; Zhao, L. Development, physiochemical characterization and forming mechanism of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide-based edible films. Carbohydr. Polym. 2016, 152, 214–221.
  47. Poverenov, E.; Arnon-Rips, H.; Zaitsev, Y.; Bar, V.; Danay, O.; Horev, B.; Rodov, V. Potential of chitosan from mushroom waste to enhance quality and storability of fresh-cut melons. Food Chem. 2018, 268, 233–241.
  48. Zhang, K.; Wang, W.; Zhao, K.; Ma, Y.; Cheng, S.; Zhou, J.; Wu, Z. Producing a novel edible film from mushrooms (L. edodes and F. velutipes) by-products with a two-stage treatment namely grinding and bleaching. J. Food Eng. 2020, 275, 109862.
  49. Olufunmilola, O.M.; Shian, A.J.; Dooshima, I.B. Effects of plasticizer concentration and mushroom (Pleurotus pulmonarius) flour inclusion on the sensory, mechanical and barrier properties of cassava starch based edible films. Eur. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 7, 47–62.
  50. Asad, F.; Anwar, H.; Yassine, H.M.; Ullah, M.I.; Kamran, Z.; Sohail, M.U. White button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Agaricomycetes), and a probiotics mixture supplementation correct dyslipidemia without influencing the colon microbiome profile in hypercholesterolemic rats. Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2020, 22, 235–244.
  51. Synytsya, A.; Míčková, K.; Synytsya, A.; Jablonský, I.; Spěváček, J.; Erban, V.; Čopíková, J. Glucans from fruit bodies of cultivated mushrooms Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus eryngii: Structure and potential prebiotic activity. Carbohydr. Polym. 2009, 76, 548–556.
  52. Van Doan, H.; Doolgindachbaporn, S.; Suksri, A. Effects of Eryngii mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii) and Lactobacillus plantarum on growth performance, immunity and disease resistance of Pangasius catfish (Pangasius bocourti, Sauvage 1880). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 2016, 42, 1427–1440.
  53. Daneshmand, A.; Sadeghi, G.H.; Karimi, A.; Vaziry, A. Effect of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) with and without probiotic on growth performance and some blood parameters of male broilers. Anim. Feed Sci. Techol. 2011, 170, 91–96.
  54. Gibson, G.R.; Roberfroid, M.B. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: Introducing the concept of probiotic. J. Nutr. 1995, 125, 1401–1412.
  55. Faraki, A.; Noori, N.; Gandomi, H.; Banuree, S.A.H.; Rahmani, F. Effect of Auricularia auricula aqueous extract on survival of Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5 and Bifidobacterium bifidum Bb-12 and on sensorial and functional properties of synbiotic yogurt. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 8, 1254–1263.
  56. Roy, D.; Fahim, A. The effect of different level of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and probiotics (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on sensory evaluation of broiler meat. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud. 2019, 7, 347–349.
  57. Oyetayo, V.O.; Oyetayo, F.L. Hematological parameters of rats fed mushroom, Pleurotus sajor-caju diets and orogastrically dosed with probiotic Lactobacillus fermentum Ovl. Int. J. Probiotics Prebiotics 2007, 2, 39–42.
  58. Van Doan, H.; Hoseinifar, S.H.; Dawood, M.A.; Chitmanat, C.; Tayyamath, K. Effects of Cordyceps militaris spent mushroom substrate and Lactobacillus plantarum on mucosal, serum immunology and growth performance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2017, 70, 87–94.
  59. Willis, W.L.; Isikhuemhen, O.S.; Ibrahim, S.A. Performance assessment of broiler chickens given mushroom extract alone or in combination with probiotics. Poult Sci. 2007, 86, 1856–1860.
  60. Soccol, C.R.; Vandenberghe, L.P.S. Overview of applied solid-state fermentation in Bazil. Biochem. Eng. J. 2008, 13, 205–218.
  61. Zhang, R.H.; Li, X.J.; Fadel, J.G. Oyster mushroom cultivation with rice and wheat straw. Bioresource Technol. 2002, 82, 277–284.
  62. Sanchez, J.E.; Royse, D.J. Scytalidium thermophilum- colonized grain, corncobs and chopped wheat straw substrates for the production of Agaricus bisporus. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100, 1670–1674.
  63. Semple, K.T.; Reid, B.J.; Fermor, T.R. Impact of composting strategies on the treatment of soils contaminated with organic pollutants. Environ. Pollut. 2001, 112, 269–283.
  64. Fidanza, M.A.; Sam fond, D.L.; Beyen, D.M.; Aurentz, D.J. Analysis of fresh mushroom compost. Hort. Technol. 2010, 20, 449–453.
  65. Rajput, R.; Prasad, G.; Chopra, A.K. Scenario of solid waste management in present Indian context. Casp. J. Environ. Sci. 2009, 7, 45–53.
  66. Run-Hua, Z.; Zeng-Qiang, D.; Zhi-Guo, L. Use of spent mushroom substrate as growing media for tomato and cucumber seedlings. Pedosphere 2012, 22, 333–342.
  67. Medina, E.; Paredes, C.; Pérez-Murcia, M.D.; Bustamante, M.A.; Moral, R. Spent mushroom substrates as component of growing media for germination and growth of horticultural plants. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100, 4227–4232.
  68. Tam, N.V.; Wang, C.H. Use of spent mushroom substrate and manure compost for honeydew melon seedlings. J. Plant. Growth Regul. 2015, 34, 417–424.
  69. Wu, S.; Lan, Y.; Huang, D.; Peng, Y.; Huang, Z.; Gelbič, I.; Carballar-Lejarazu, R.; Guan, X.; Zhang, L.; Zou, S. Use of spent mushroom substrate for production of Bacillus thuringiensis by solid-state fermentation. J. Econ. Entomol. 2014, 107, 137–143.
  70. Rajavat, A.S.; Rai, S.; Pandiyan, K.; Kushwaha, P.; Choudhary, P.; Kumar, M.; Chakdar, H.; Singh, A.; Karthikeyan, N.; Bagul, S.Y.; et al. Sustainable use of the spent mushroom substrate of Pleurotus florida for production of lignocellulolytic enzymes. J. Basic Microbiol. 2020, 60, 173–184.
  71. Qiao, J.J.; Zhang, Y.F.; Sun, L.F.; Liu, W.W.; Zhu, H.J.; Zhang, Z. Production of spent mushroom substrate hydrolysates useful for cultivation of Lactococcus lactis by dilute sulfuric acid, cellulase and xylanase treatment. Bioresour. Technol. 2011, 102, 8046–8051.
  72. Singh, G.; Tiwari, A.; Rathore, H.; Prasad, S.; Hariprasad, P.; Sharma, S. Valorization of paddy straw using de-oiled cakes for P. ostreatus cultivation and utilization of spent mushroom substrate for biopesticide development. Waste Biomass Valroi. 2021, 12, 333–346.
  73. Sendi, H.; Mohamed, M.T.M.; Anwar, M.P.; Saud, H.M. Spent mushroom waste as a media replacement for peat moss in kai-lan (Brassica oleracea var. Alboglabra) production. Sci. World J. 2013, 2013, 258562.
  74. Liu, C.J.; Duan, Y.L.; Jin, R.Z.; Han, Y.Y.; Hao, J.H.; Fan, S.X. Spent mushroom substrates as component of growing media for lettuce seedlings. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Hangzhou, China, 26–29 June 2018; Volume 185, p. 012016.
  75. Antimanon, S.; Chamkhuy, W.; Sutthiwattanakul, S.; Laoteng, K. Efficient production of arachidonic acid of Mortierella sp. by solid-state fermentation using combinatorial medium with spent mushroom substrate. Chem. Pap. 2018, 72, 2899–2908.
  76. Wyciszkiewicz, M.; Saeid, A.; Samoraj, M.; Chojnacka, K. Solid-state solubilization of bones by B. megaterium in spent mushroom substrate as a medium for a phosphate enriched substrate. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2017, 92, 1397–1405.
  77. Park, N.; Yun, Y.-S.; Park, J.M. The past, present, and future trends of biosorption. Biotechnol. Bioprocess. Eng. 2010, 15, 86–102.
  78. Abdi, O.; Kazemi, M. A review study of biosorption of heavy metals and comparison between different biosorbents. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 2015, 6, 1386–1399.
  79. Menaga, D.; Rajakumar, S.; Ayyasamy, P.M. Spent mushroom substrate: A crucial biosorbent for the removal of ferrous iron from groundwater. SN Appl. Sci. 2021, 3, 32.
  80. Akar, S.T.; Gorgulu, A.; Kaynak, Z.; Anilan, B.; Akar, T. Biosorption of reactive blue 49 dye under batch and continuous mode using a mixed biosorbent of macro-fungus Agaricus bisporus and Thuja orientalis cones. Chem. Eng. J. 2009, 148, 26–34.
  81. Eliescu, A.; Georgescu, A.A.; Nicolescu, C.M.; Bumbac, M.; Cioateră, N.; Mureșeanu, M.; Buruleanu, L.C. Biosorption of Pb(II) from aqueous solution using mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) biomass and spent mushroom substrate. Anal. Lett. 2020, 53, 2292–2319.
  82. Tay, C.C.; Liew, H.H.; Yin, C.Y.; Abdul-Talib, S.; Surif, S.; Suhaimi, A.B.; Yong, S.K. Biosorption of cadmium ions using Pleurotus ostreatus: Growth kinetics, isotherm study and biosorption mechanism. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2011, 28, 825–830.
  83. Yildirim, A.; Acay, H. Biosorption studies of mushrooms for two typical dyes. JOTCSA 2020, 7, 295–306.
  84. Qu, J.; Zang, T.; Gu, H.; Li, K.; Hu, Y.; Ren, G.; Xu, X.; Jin, Y. Biosorption of copper ions from aqueous solution by Flammulina velutipes spent substrate. BioResources 2015, 10, 8058–8075.
  85. Yang, K.; Li, Y.; Zheng, H.; Luan, X.; Li, H.; Wang, Y.; Du, Q.; Sui, K.; Li, H.; Xia, Y. Adsorption of Congo red with hydrothermal treated shiitake mushroom. Mater. Res. Express. 2020, 7, 015103.
  86. Zhao, S.; Liu, J.; Tu, H.; Li, F.; Li, X.; Yang, J.; Liao, J.; Yang, Y.; Liu, N.; Sun, Q. Characteristics of uranium biosorption from aqueous solutions on fungus Pleurotus ostreatus. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23, 24846–24856.
  87. Mahmood, T.; Khan, A.; Naeem, A.; Hamayun, M.; Muska, M.; Farooq, M.; Hussain, F. Adsorption of Ni(II) ions from aqueous solution onto a fungus Pleurotus ostreatus. Desalin. Water Treat. 2016, 57, 7209–7218.
  88. Amin, F.; Talpur, F.N.; Balouch, A.; Afridi, H.I.; Khaskheli, A.A. Efficient entrapping of toxic Pb(II) ions from aqueous system on a fixed-bed column of fungal biosorbent. Geol. Ecol. Landsc. 2018, 2, 39–44.
  89. Wu, J.; Zhang, T.; Chen, C.; Feng, L.; Su, X.; Zhou, L.; Chen, Y.; Xia, A.; Wang, X. Spent substrate of Ganodorma lucidumas a new bio-adsorbent for adsorption of three typical dyes. Bioresour. Technol. 2018, 266, 134–138.
  90. Amin, F.; Talpur, F.N.; Balouch, A.; Afridi, H.I.; Surhio, M.L. Statistical methodology for biosorption of nitrate (NO3−) ions from aqueous solution by Pleurotus eryngii fungal biomass. Model. Earth Syst. Environ. 2017, 3, 1101–1112.
  91. Lin, Y.; Munroe, P.; Joseph, S.; Henderson, R.; Ziolkowski, A. Water extractable organic carbon in untreated and chemical treated biochars. Chemosphere 2012, 87, 151–157.
  92. Cheng, C.H.; Lehmann, J.; Engelhard, M.H. Natural oxidation of black carbon in soils: Changes in molecular form and surface change along a climosequence. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2008, 72, 1598–1610.
  93. Joseph, S.D.; Camps-Arbestain, M.; Lin, Y.; Munroe, P.; Chia, C.H.; Hook, J.; Van Zwieten, L.; Kimber, S.; Cowie, A.; Singh, B.P. An investigation into the reactions of biochar in soil. Aust. J. Soil Res. 2010, 48, 501–515.
  94. Bruun, E.W.; Hauggaard-Nielsen, H.; Ibrahim, N.; Egsgaard, H.; Ambus, P.; Jensen, P.A.; Dam-Johansen, K. Influence of fast pyrolysis temperature on biochar labile fraction and short-term carbon loss in a loamy soil. Biomass Bioenerg. 2011, 35, 1182–1189.
  95. Sohi, S.P.; Krull, E.; Lopez-Capel, E.; Bol, R. A review of biochar and its use and function in soil. Adv. Agron. 2010, 105, 47–82.
  96. Zhang, H.; Voroney, R.; Price, G. Effects of temperature and processing conditions on biochar chemical properties and their influence on soil C and N transformations. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2015, 83, 19–28.
  97. Schmidt, H.P.; Pandit, B.H.; Martinsen, V.; Cornelissen, G.; Conte, P.; Kammann, C.I. Fourfold increase in pumpkin yield in response to low-dosage root zone application of urine-enhanced biochar to a fertile tropical soil. Agriculture 2015, 5, 723–741.
  98. Kammann, C.I.; Schmidt, H.P.; Messerschmidt, N.; Linsel, S.; Steffens, D.; Müller, C.; Koyro, H.W.; Conte, P.; Joseph, S. Plant growth improvement mediated by nitrate capture in co-composted biochar. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 11080.
  99. Wu, Q.; Xian, Y.; He, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Wu, J.; Ynag, G.; Zhang, X.; Qi, H.; Ma, J.; Xiao, Y.; et al. Adsorption characteristics of Pb(II) using biochar derived from spent mushroom substrate. Sci Rep. 2019, 9, 15999.
  100. Chang, J.; Zhang, H.; Cheng, H.; Yan, Y.; Chang, M.; Cao, Y.; Huang, F.; Zhang, G.; Yan, M. Spent Ganoderma lucidum substrate derived biochar as a new bio-adsorbent for Pb2+/Cd2+ removal in water. Chemosphere 2020, 241, 125121.
  101. Zhang, G.; Liu, N.; Luo, Y.; Zhang, H.; Su, L.; Oh, K.; Cheng, H. Efficient removal of Cu(II), Zn(II), and Cd(II) from aqueous solutions by a mineral-rich biochar derived from a spent mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) substrate. Materials 2020, 14, 35.
  102. Wang, X.; Li, X.; Liu, G.; He, Y.; Chen, C.; Liu, X.; Li, G.; Gu, Y.; Zhao, Y. Mixed heavy metals removal from wastewater by discarded mushroom-stick biochar: Adsorption properties and mechanisms. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 2019, 21, 584–592.
  103. Sewu, D.D.; Jung, H.; Kim, S.S.; Lee, D.S.; Woo, S.H. Decolorization of cationic and anionic dye-laden wastewater by steam-activated biochar produced at an industrial-scale from spent mushroom substrate. Bioresour. Technol. 2019, 277, 77–86.
  104. Chen, G.J.; Peng, C.Y.; Fang, J.Y.; Dong, Y.Y.; Zhu, X.H.; Cai, H.M. Biosorption of fluoride from drinking water using spent mushroom compost biochar coated with aluminum hydroxide. Desalin Water Treat. 2016, 57, 12385–12395.
  105. Bhardwaj, K.; Sharma, A.; Tejwan, N.; Bhardwaj, S.; Bhardwaj, P.; Nepovimova, E.; Shami, A.; Kalia, A.; Kumar, A.; Abd-Elsalam, K.A.; et al. Pleurotus macro fungi-assisted nanoparticle synthesis and its potential applications: A review. J. Fungi 2020, 6, 351.
  106. Owaid, M.N.; Ibraheem, I.J. Mycosynthesis of nanoparticles using edible and medicinal mushrooms. Eur. J. Nanomed. 2017, 9, 5–23.
  107. Sriramulu, M.; Shanmugam, S.; Ponnusamy, V.K. Agaricus bisporus mediated biosynthesis of copper nanoparticles and its biological effects: An in-vitro study. Colloid Interface Sci. Commun. 2020, 35, 100254.
  108. Madhanraj, R.; Eyini, M.; Balaji, P. Antioxidant assay of gold and silver nanoparticles from edible Basidiomycetes mushroom fungi. Free Radic. Antioxid. 2017, 7, 137–142.
  109. Bhat, R.; Sharanabasava, V.G.; Deshpande, R.; Shetti, U.; Sanjeev, G.; Venkataraman, A. Photo-bio-synthesis of irregular shaped functionalized gold nanoparticles using edible mushroom Pleurotus florida and its anti-cancer evaluation. J. Photochem. B Biol. 2013, 125, 63–69.
  110. Chaturvedi, V.K.; Yadav, N.; Rai, N.K.; Abd Ellah, N.H.; Bohara, R.A.; Rehan, I.F.; Marraiki, N.; Batiha, G.E.S.; Hetta, H.F.; Singh, M.P. Pleurotus sajor-caju-mediated synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles active against colon cancer cell lines: A new era of Herbonanoceutics. Molecules 2020, 25, 3091.
  111. Zeng, D.; Zhao, J.; Luk, K.H.; Cheung, S.T.; Wong, K.H.; Chen, T. Potentiation of in vivo anti-cancer efficacy of selenium nanoparticles by mushroom polysaccharides surface decoration. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2019, 67, 2865–2876.
  112. Ismail, A.F.M.; Ahmed, M.M.; Salem, A.A.M. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using mushroom extracts: Induction of apoptosis in HepG2 and MCF-7 cells via caspases stimulation and regulation of BAX and Bcl-2 gene expressions. J. Pharm. Biomed. Sci. 2015, 5, 1–9.
  113. Aygün, A.; Özdemir, S.; Gülcan, M.; Cellat, K. Synthesis and Characterization of Reishi mushroom-mediated green synthesis of silver nanoparticles for the biochemical applications. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2020, 178, 112970.
  114. Anthony, K.J.P.; Murugan, M.; Jeyaraj, M.; Rathinam, N.K.; Sangiliyandi, G. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using pine mushroom extract: A potential antimicrobial agent against E. coli and B. subtilis. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2014, 20, 2325–2331.
  115. Mirunalini, S.; Arulmozhi, V.; Deepalakshmi, K.; Krishnaveni, M. Intracellular biosynthesis and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles using edible mushrooms. Not. Sci. Biol. 2012, 4, 55–61.
  116. Manimaran, K.; Murugesan, S.; Ragavendran, C.; Balasubramani, G.; Natarajan, D.; Ganesan, A.; Seedevi, P. Biosynthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles using edible mushroom (Pleurotus djamor) extract: Mosquito larvicidal, histopathological, antibacterial and anti-cancer effect. J. Clust Sci. 2020, 1–12.
  117. Manimaran, K.; Balasubramani, G.; Ragavendran, C.; Natarajan, D.; Murugesan, S. Biological applications of synthesized ZnO nanoparticles using Pleurotus djamor against mosquito larvicidal, histopathology, antibacterial, antioxidant and anti-cancer effect. J. Clust. Sci. 2020, 1–13.
  118. Boobalan, T.; Sethupathi, M.; Sengottuvelan, N.; Kumar, P.; Balaji, P.; Gulyás, B.Z.; Padmanabhan, P.; Selvan, S.T.; Arun, A. Mushroom-derived carbon dots for toxic metal ion detection and as antibacterial and anti-cancer agents. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2020, 3, 5910–5919.
  119. Pacquiao, M.R.; de Luna, M.D.G.; Thongsai, N.; Kladsomboon, S.; Paoprasert, P. Highly fluorescent carbon dots from enokitake mushroom as multi-faceted optical nanomaterials for Cr6+ and VOC detection and imaging applications. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 453, 192–203.
  120. Zulfajri, M.; Rasool, A.; Huang, G.G. A fluorescent sensor from oyster mushroom-carbon dots for sensing nitroarenes in aqueous solutions. New J. Chem. 2020, 44, 10525–10535.
  121. Zulfajri, M.; Liu, K.C.; Pu, Y.H.; Rasool, A.; Dayalan, S.; Huang, G.G. Utilization of carbon dots derived from Volvariella volvacea mushroom for a highly sensitive detection of Fe3+ and Pb2+ ions in aqueous solutions. Chemosensors 2020, 8, 47.
  122. Yang, Y.; Liu, M.; Wang, Y.; Wang, S.; Miao, H.; Yang, L. Carbon dots derived from fungus for sensing hyaluronic acid and hyaluronidase. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2017, 251, 503–508.
  123. Millikan, L.E. Cosmetology, cosmetics, cosmeceuticals: Definitions and regulations. Clin. Dermatol. 2001, 19, 371–374.
  124. Antignac, E.; Nohynek, G.J.; Re, T.; Clouzeau, J.; Toutain, H. Safety of botanical ingredients in personal care products/cosmetics. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2011, 49, 324–341.
  125. Hyde, K.D.; Bahkali, A.H.; Moslem, M.A. Fungi-an unusual source for cosmetics. Fungal Divers. 2010, 43, 1–9.
  126. Camassola, M. Mushrooms-the incredible factory for enzymes and metabolites productions. Ferment. Technol. 2013, 2.
  127. Taofiq, O.; Heleno, S.A.; Calhelha, R.C.; Alves, M.J.; Barros, L.; Barreiro, M.F.; González-Paramás, A.M.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Development of mushroom-based cosmeceutical formulations with anti-inflammatory, anti-tyrosinase, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. Molecules 2016, 21, 1372.
  128. Taofiq, O.; Heleno, S.A.; Calhelha, R.C.; Alves, M.J.; Barros, L.; González-Paramás, A.M.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. The potential of Ganoderma lucidum extracts as bioactive ingredients in topical formulations, beyond its nutritional benefits. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2017, 108, 139–147.
  129. Gupta, N.; Dubey, A.; Prasad, P.; Roy, M. Formulation and evaluation of herbal fairness cream comprising hydroalcoholic extracts of Pleurotus ostreatus, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Camellia sinensis. UK J. Pharm. Biosci. 2015, 3, 41.
  130. Hapsari, R.; Elya, B.; Amin, J. Formulation and evaluation of antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory effect from gel containing the 70% ethanolic Pleurotus ostreatus extract. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants 2012, 2, 135–140.
  131. Lourith, N.; Pungprom, S.; Kanlayavattanakul, M. Formulation and efficacy evaluation of the safe and efficient moisturizing snow mushroom hand sanitizer. J. Cosmet. Dermatol. 2021, 20, 554–560.
  132. Taofiq, O.; Heleno, S.A.; Calhelha, R.C.; Fernandes, I.P.; Alves, M.J.; Barros, L.; González-Paramás, A.M.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Mushroom-based cosmeceutical ingredients: Microencapsulation and in vitro release profile. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 124, 44–52.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback