Various medicinal plant parts have different phytochemicals and antioxidants that can be used in crop protection and preservation. Extracts from plants such as Ruta chalepensis, Eucalyptus globulus, etc., have proven to be effective in controlling postharvest pathogens of horticultural crops and increased their shelf life when used as a substitute for synthetic chemicals. Furthermore, extracts from neem and other medicinal plants contain a predominant and insecticidal active ingredient. The application of medicinal plant extracts could be a useful alternative to synthetic chemicals in the postharvest protection and preservation of horticultural crops.
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Chemical | Application | Classification of Pesticides | Year of Ban |
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Plant Name | Country of Origin | Plant Part Used | Focus of the Study | Treatment Application | Key Findings |
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1,2-dibromoethane | It is used as a soil fumigant to control nematodes and other soil pests in crops such as vegetables, ornamentals, pineapples and tobacco | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA | 2010 | ||
Ethylene dibromide |
Disease | Crop Affected | Symptoms | Control | Reference | Hazardous Effect According to PAN [62] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Reference | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Anthracnose | Apples | Black spots appear on skin of the affected fruits which gradually become sunken and coalesce. | Before storage, treat with hot water (50–55 °C) for 15 min or dip in benomyl solution (500 ppm) or thiobendazole (1000 ppm) for 5 min. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Acorus calamus | China | Root | Control banana fruit crown rot | [68] | Can affect the reproductive system in males | Evaluation of plant extracts at various concentrations (1%, 5%, 10%, 25% and 50%) against | C. musae | was carried out by the ‘poisoned food technique’. The banana fruits were then dipped in plant extracts for 5 min and allowed to air dry for 6 h. Banana hands dipped in chemical benomyl (0.1%) served as positive control while distilled water was used as a negative control. One group was incubated at room temperature (28 ± 2 °C), and another group was held in low-temperature storage (14 °C and 90% RH) conditions. | Extracts of | A. calamus | (50%) significantly reduced crown-rot disease by up to 75% at room temperature (12 d of incubation) and up to 85% at cold storage (35 d of incubation) conditions. | [94] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
It is used as a fumigant to protect against insects, pests and nematodes in citrus, vegetable and grain crops | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA | 2010 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Stem end rot | Avocado | The affected area enlarges to form a circular, black patch around the base of the pedicel. The pulp becomes brown and softer during storage. | Prune and destroy infected twigs and spray carbendazim or thiophanate methyl (0.1%) or chlorathalonil (0.2%) on a fortnightly interval during the rainy season. | [69] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Allium cepa × Allium sativum | Croatia | Leaves | Control banana fruit crown rot | Evaluation of plant extracts at various concentrations (1%, 5%, 10%, 25% and 50% concentration) against | C. musae | Can cause infertility and destroy the testicles | was carried out by the ‘poisoned food technique’. The banana fruits were then dipped in plant extracts (at 25% concentration) for 5 min and allowed to air dry for 6 h. Banana hands dipped in chemical benomyl (0.1%) served as positive control while distilled water was used as a negative control. One group was incubated at room temperature (28 ± 2 °C), and another group was held in low-temperature storage (14 °C and 90% RH) conditions. | The dipping of banana fruits in zimmu leaf extract at 25% concentration exhibited 100% inhibition of crown-rot disease in cold storage (14 °C) up to 35 d and increased the shelf life to 64 d. However, at room storage (28 ± 2 °C), the same treatment exhibited 86% inhibition of crown-rot disease up to 12 d. | [94] | Hydrogen cyanide | It is used in the treatment of citrus and other fruits for the control of scale insect and thrips, in quarantine treatments of bananas, pineapple and other commodities for the control of aphids, mealybugs and other exposed insects. It is also used in a vacuum treatment for bulbs, rhizomes, tubers, asparagus roots and strawberry plants to control certain mites and nematodes | Classified as “fatal if inhaled” (H330) according to the EU GHS. | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Soft-rot | Potato | Young spots start from the stem end of the fruit as light brown watery rot. As the fruit ripens, area of the rotting increases, and the skin becomes wrinkled. A peculiar musty odour is later emitted. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aloe vera | Oman | Leaves | Careful handling of potatoes without causing any wounds and dipping the potatoes in aureofungin-sol at 500 ppm for 20 min to control infection in storage. | Use of | Aloe vera | [70] | [89] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
gel solution in controlling nectarine | Rhizopus stolonifer | , | Botrytis cinerea | and | Penicillium digitatum | The fruits were treated by dipping with the corresponded | Aloe vera | gel solution for 10 min and allowed to dry at room temperature. After 24 h, the fruits were inoculated with | R. stolonifer | , | B. cinerea | or | P. digitatum | by depositing 20 μL the fungi stock (50 spores) inside the artificial injury made (2 × 2 × 2 mm of length, width and depth) on the nectarine cultivars and then stored in room temperature for 6 d. | Aloe vera | (alone or with the addition of thymol) was effective in reducing fruit decay in the two nectarine cultivars by 50 and 70% depending on nectarine cultivar and fungus species. | Lindane | An insecticide used to control a broad spectrum of insects in fruits and vegetables | Aloe vera | Oman | Leaves | Aloe vera gel edible coating in delaying rachis browning on grapes | The treatments were | Aloe vera | gel diluted 1:3 with distilled water, and distilled water served as control. The grapes were immersed in 5 min in respective treatments, air-dried before storage at 1 °C and 95% RH in permanent darkness for 35 d. Ten samples for both treated and control clusters were taken after 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 d; half of them were immediately analyzed (cold storage), and the remainder were transferred to a chamber under controlled conditions at 20 °C and 90% RH and analyzed after 4 d to simulate market operations. | Results indicate severe symptoms of dehydration and browning in control rachises (plus SL scores > 3) and low effects for those clusters treated with | A. vera | gel (plus SL scores < 3) after 28 d of cold storage. After 35 days of storage, grapes treated with | Aloe vera | got plus SL score < 4, while the control got plus SL score > 5. | [96] | Lippia javanica | Botswana | Leaf powder | Control mustard rape aphids and tomato spider mites on tomatoes | Plant extracts from leaf powder at 12.5% |
Datura stramonium | w | / | Mexico/Colombia | v | were mixed with 0.1% | v | / | v | soap. The treatments were applied 24 h post mixing the plant materials with water at a rate of 1 L on an area of 5 m | 2 | using a knapsack sprayer fitted with a hollow cone spray nozzle. | Plant extracts from leaf powder at 12.5% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Classified as WHO Class 1b | 2012 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Highly carcinogenic | Classified in several categories, and in 2018, IARC classified it as “Carcinogenic to humans” | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bitter-rot | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Apple | Faint, light brown discolouration beneath the skin develops. The discolouration expands in a cone shape. The circular, rough lesions become depressed. Pink masses of spores are found arranged in defined rings. | Treatment with mancozeb to check the disease in storage. | [ | 71] | Has detrimental effects on the nervous system and should be used with caution. | Metaflumizone | It is used to control the diamondback moth on Brassica leafy vegetables | Is very persistent in the water-sediment environment and the bio-concentration factor is over 5000. It is classified as P = Persistent and B = Bio-accumulative | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alternaria rot | Stone fruits | Alternaria rot is characterized by circular, dry, firm, shallow lesions covered with dark, olive green to black surface mycelial growth. The infected tissue is brown, such as that caused by brown rot. | Postharvest sprays with imazalil, azoxystrobin, fludioxonil or mixtures of these may provide control. | [72] | Can cause developmental effects in the offspring of pregnant women | Noviflumuron | Prevents the successful molting and development of subterranean termites and eventually eliminates the colony that can cause damage to fruit tree plantations | Classified as a probable carcinogen by US EPA Annual Cancer Report and classified as WHO Class 1a | 2010 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Botrytis rot | Brinjal | Vinclozolin | It is used to control blights, rots and molds in vineyards and on raspberries, lettuce, kiwi, snap beans and onions. It is also used to protect crops against | Botrytis cinerea | and | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | Classified as a reproductive toxicant and endocrine disruptor | 2010 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cyproconazole | It is used to control powdery mildew in cucurbits, rust on cereals and apple scab | Classified as presumed human reproductive toxicant according to EU GHS | 2011 |
Plant Name | Country of Origin | Plant Part Used | Focus of the Study | Treatment Application | Key Findings | Reference | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Azadiracta indica | India | Aqueous leaf extracts | To control | Pieris brassicae | on cabbages | Aqueous concentration (10, 5, 2.5 and 1.0%) were sprayed on cabbage foliage. | At 5%, had an anti-feedant of 82.5%. The anti-feedant effect of the different concentrations decreased with a decrease in concentration. | [87] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Azadiracta indica | India | Kernel aqueous extract | Control red slug caterpillar on tea plants | Tea leaves were sprayed with different neem kernel aqueous extract (NKAE) concentrations at 2, 4, 6 and 8%. | The anti-feedant activity was in ascending order with an increase in concentrations. The leaf area consumed was highest at 1158.6 + 254.79 cm | 2 | at 2% concentration in 5th instar, and it was lowest at 8% concentration in the 1st instar larva as 92.2 cm | 2 | . The anti-feedant of 87.5% over control was attained in 3rd instar larva at 8% concentration, while it was lowest as 22.74% in the 2nd instar larva at 2% concentration. | [37] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bobgunnia madagascariensis | Senegal | Dried pods | Aqueous extracts dried pods in controlling ladybird beetle on | Brassica napus | Aqueous extracts applied separately at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% | w | / | v | under laboratory conditions. The mortality of | H. variegata | was recorded 24, 48 and 72 h post-exposure. | B. madagascariensis | (25% | w | / | v | ) caused the highest mortality (90%). | [88] | ||||||||||||||||
w | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ | v | using 0.1% | v | / | v | soap can be used against rape aphids and tomato spider mites. | Leaves | L. javanica | at 12.5% reduced aphids by 83% and 75.9% tomato mites. | Controlling soft-rot on mango fruits | Datura stramonium | extracts were tested at 10%, 25% and 50% dilutions. | Control had higher mean soft-rot severity of 93.4%, while the | Datura stramonium | [90] | |||||||||||||||||||
extracts at 25% reduced the severity of soft-rot by 41%. | [ | 97 | ]The fruits show water-soaked and softened tissue. The water-soaked spots are irregular in shape and are approximately 25 mm in diameter. The fungus that develops on the surface of the fruit shows a dark grey growth. | A pre-harvest spray of pyraclostrobin or fludioxonil will give some control. | [73] | Can cause eye injury and skin irritation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Melia azedarach | India | Aqueous leaf extracts | Control | Pieris brassicae | on cabbages | Aqueous concentration (10, 5, 2.5 and 1.0%) was sprayed on cabbage foliage. | At 5%, had an anti-feedant of 88.3%. The anti-feedant effect of the different concentrations decreased with a decrease in concentration. | [87] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Galenia africana | South Africa | Dried leaves | Effect of | Galenia africana | extracts alone and in combination with kresoxim-methyl for controlling | B. cinerea | on apples | The apple cultivar, Granny Smith, was wounded (5 mm in diameter and 3 mm in depth) three times halfway between the calyx and the stem end. A 20 μL drop of each plant extract and kresoxim-methyl was placed in the wounds and allowed to air-dry for 2 h before application of a 20 μL conidial suspension (1 × 10 | 4 | spores mL | −1 | ); the 20 μL drops had final plant extract doses of 0.0, 1.95, 3.91, 7.81, 15.63, 31.25 and 62.5 mg·mL | −1 | , with or without kresoxim-methyl at 0.0 and 0.005 mg mL | −1 | . | Kresoxim-methyl (2.5 mg·mL | −1 | ) in combination with | G. africana | extract at doses of 125.0, 250.0 and 500.0 mg·mL | −1 | showed high inhibition levels (73, 83.8 and 90.8%, respectively) compared to the kresoxim-methyl (72.5%). Inhibition of decay progression by 67.1% for the plant extract only (62.5 mg·mL | −1 | ) was achieved compared to 37% of the control. | [98] | Rhizopus stolonifer | Banana | The infection starts as a circular tan area around an island of fruit. The skin will slip off from the flesh if you put slight pressure on it. Next, the fluffy white growth of the fungus becomes visible near the centre and rapidly colonizes the whole area. | Use postharvest fungicides such as benomyl, fenbuconazole and fludioxonil. | [ | Melia azedarach | 74] | IndiaLonger exposure can result in severe liver damage |
Leaves plant powder | To control cucumber pests | Crushed fruits of | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Moringa olifera | India | Leaf extracts | Effect of gum arabic (GA) coatings and moringa (M) leaf extract in controlling | Colletotrichum gloeosporioides | on ‘Maluma’ avocado fruit | M. azedarach | , were tested at the rates of 30 and 60 g kg | −1 | , | All the concentrations were effective in controlling 90% of pests than the control | Fruits were dipped into the treatments: GA 10%, GA 15%, GA 10% + M, GA 15% + M and CMC 1% + M, and the fruits were then stored at 5.5 °C (95% relative humidity (RH)) for 21 d and moved to ambient conditions at 21 ± 1 °C (60% RH) for 7 d to simulate a retail condition.[91] | |||||||||||||||||||||||
The study demonstrated that GA 15% + M (62.37 N) and CMC 1% + M (59.93 N) retained fruit firmness and lowered weight loss by 3.66% and 6.19%, respectively, and both suppressed mycelial growth of | C. gloeosporioides | on ‘Maluma’ avocado fruit by 33%. | [ | 99 | ] | Penicillium italicum | Citrus | Solanum incanum | MadagascarEarly symptoms include a soft water-soaked area on the peel, followed by the development of a circular colony of white mould. Bluish asexual spores (conidia) form at the centre of the colony, surrounded by a broad band of white mycelium. The fruit rapidly spoils and collapses, with sporulation sometimes occurring internally. | Fruits were used as a pasteAdd sodium bicarbonate to either imazalil, thiabendazole, pyrimethanil or fludioxonil for improved performance. | To control cabbage aphids[ | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Phyllanthus niruri | India | Bitter apple extract (BA) was mixed with distilled water to obtain BA fruit concentrations (30, 60 and 90 mL L | Leaves | 75] | −1 | Exposure to these chemicals can have negative effects on the respiratory system and they are known to be a carcinogen | ) The treatments were mixed with 3, 6 and 12 g of sugar, respectively. | Phyllanthus niruri | as an edible coating to control postharvest anthracnose in dragon fruits | The fruits were inoculated by dipping for 2 min in a spore suspension of | C. gloeosporioides | (10 | 5 | The concentration of 90 mL L | −1 | had the highest mortality of cabbage aphids, and the cabbages had a good appearance. | ||||||||||||||||||
spores mL | - | ) with 0.1% ( | v | / | v | ) Tween 80 and air-dried at ambient (25 ± 2 °C). The fruits were then dipped for 2 min in 5.0 g L | −1 | , 10.0 g L | −1 | and 15.0 g L | −1 | for | Phyllanthus niruri | crude extract and left to dry again at room temperature. Fruits dipped in spore suspension (10 | 5 | spores’ mL | - | ) with 0.1% ( | v | / | v | ) Tween 80 for 2 min served as control. All inoculated treated and untreated fruits were then packed in commercial packaging cartons and stored at 11 ± 2 °C, 80% RH for 28 d. | Phyllanthus niruri extracts at 5.0 g L | −1 | or 10.0 g L | −1 | significantly controlled anthracnose by 80 and 90%, respectively, after 28 d of cold storage at 11 ± 2 °C and 80% RH. | [100] | Spirodiclofen | It is used as an acaricide and insecticide on citrus, grapes, pome fruit, stone fruit and tree nut crops | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA and is now also classified as “Carc 1B” by the EU GHS | 2011 | ||
Penicillium digitatum Sacc. | Citrus | Symptoms include a soft water-soaked area on the peel, followed by the development of a circular colony of white mould, up to 4 cm in diameter. Green asexual spores (conidia) form at the centre of the colony, surrounded by a broad band of white mycelium. | Add sodium bicarbonate to either imazalil, thiabendazole, pyrimethanil, or fludioxonil for improved performance. | [75] | Exposure to these chemicals can have negative effects on the respiratory system and they are known to be a carcinogen | Solanum incanum | Madagascar | Aqueous crude fruit sap extract | To control green peach aphids ( | Myzus persicae | ) on kale | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Plumbago zeylanica | Australia | Leaves | Kale was routinely sprayed with 10, 25, 50 and 75% | S. incanum | extract. | Control banana fruit crown rot | Evaluation of plant extracts at various concentrations (1%, 5%, 10%, 25% and 50% concentration) against | C. musae | was carried out by the ‘poisoned food technique’. The banana fruits were then dipped in plant extracts (at 25% concentration) for 5 min and allowed to air dry for 6 h. Banana hands dipped in chemical benomyl (0.1%) served as positive control while distilled water was used as a negative control. One group was incubated at room temperature (28 ± 2 °C), and another group was held in low-temperature storage (14 °C and 90% RH) conditions.The crude extract was effective in controlling the green peach aphids. The order of the insecticidal activity of the four different concentrations was 75 > 50 > 25 > 10%. | Extracts of | P. zeylanica | [92] | Ethiofencarb | |||||||||||||||||||||
(25%) recorded a significant reduction of crown-rot disease up to 75% at room temperature (12 d of incubation) and up to 85% at cold storage (35 d of incubation) conditions. | It is used as an insecticide in controlling aphids on hard and soft fruits and some vegetables | Methomyl | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | 94 | ] | Brown-rot | Stone and pome fruits | The infection of the fruit usually occurs as the fruit approaches full ripeness. A rapidly spreading firm brown rot develops, and the fungus produces masses of fawn-coloured spores often in concentric zones. Infected fruit shrivels to a ‘mummy’. Brown rotted fruit in cold storage appear black and there may be no signs of sporulation | Solanum incanum | Madagascar | Leaf powderSpray with fungicides such as Merivon, Luna Sensation and Fontelis. | [76] | Highly toxic to beneficial insects such as bees | To control mustard rape aphids and tomato spider mites on tomatoes | Plant extracts from leaf powder at 12.5% | w | / | v | were mixed with 0.1% | v | / | v | soap. The treatments were applied 24 h post mixing the plant materials with water at a rate of one liter on an area of 5 m | 2 | using a knapsack sprayer fitted with a hollow cone spray nozzle. | Plant extracts from leaf powder at 12.5% | w | / | v | using 0.1% | |||||||
Ruta chalepensis | Egypt | v | Leaves | Controlling soft-rot on mango fruits | Ruta chalepensis | extracts were tested at 10%, 25% and 50%./ | Higher mean soft-rot severity was recorded on the untreated control 4.67 (93.4% fruit area affected); while the greatest reduction in the severity of soft-rot 1.33 (26%) was recorded in the extract of | Ruta chalepensis | at 50% concentration.[90] | It is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide that inhibits cholinesterase activity. It is used in vegetables, fruit crops, cereals and orchard crops for the control of a wide range of insect species | Classified as WHO Class 1b | |||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | 97 | 2015 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
] | Sour-rot | Solanum incanum | Madagascar | An aqueous crude fruit extract | To control ladybird beetle on | Brassica napus | Concentration extracts at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% were applied by spraying | Brassica napus | plants under greenhouse conditions. | Concentration extracts at 25% caused the highest mortality of 80% on collected dead ladybird beetles. | [88] | |||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | 95 | ] | v | soap can be used against rape aphids and tomato spider mites. | Solanum delagoense | (25%) reduced aphids and mites by 86.5% and 75%, respectively. | Citrus | Lesions often occur near the stem-end scar, are water-soaked and may have a white scummy growth in the cracks. The odour of these lesions is distinctive and is similar to that produced by lactic acid bacteria | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thymus vulgaris | L. | Italy | Leaves | The effect of edible coatings alone or in combination with thyme oil on anthracnose incidence and severity in inoculated avocado fruits | Evaluation of plant extracts at various concentrations was carried out by the ‘poisoned food technique’. The inoculated fruits were dipped in commercial treatment (prochloraz 0.05% for 5 min dip), chitosan (CH), aloe (AL), thyme oil (TO), CH+TO (3:1) and AL+TO (3:1), allowed to air dry at room temperature and stored for 5 d. | Coating with CH +TO and AL+TO combination was the most effective, and both combination treatments significantly reduced the percentage disease incidence by 80% and 75%, respectively. | Diquat | It is used for pre-emergence weed control on the potato and also to defoliate seed or root crops for pre-harvest desiccation | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA and is now also classified as “Carc 1B” by the EU GHS | 2016 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
The use of guazatine is effective in controlling this disease, while SOPP results in some protection. | [ | 75 | ] | [ | 101 | ] | Tephrosia vogelii | Zimbabwe | Leaf extracts | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zataria multiflora | Control green bean aphids | Iran | An essential oil from leaves | Preventing browning of button mushrooms ( | Agaricus bisporus | ) | Leaf extracts were made at three different concentrations (0.5%, 2% and 5% | w | / | v | ). | T. vogeii | at 5% | w | / | v | reduced aphid infestation by 60%, while control reduced pest infestation by 27%. This resulted in 5% | T. vogeii | having yield of 1100 kg/ha compared to 190 kg/ha of the control. | [93] | Flumioxazin | It is used as a herbicide for pre- and post-emergence control of susceptible weeds on fruit orchards, vegetables and other field crops | Classified as a reproductive toxicant | 2016 | ||||||||||
The treatments were control (water), TG (Tragacanth gum coating, 0.6%), TGZEO1 (0.6% TG + 1.0% 122 sorbitol + 100 ppm ZEO), TGZEO5 (0.6% TG + 1.0% sorbitol + 500 ppm ZEO), TGZEO10 (0.6% TG + 1.0% sorbitol + 1000 ppm ZEO) and SM (1000 ppm sodium metabisulphite). Mushrooms were dipped into their respective solutions for 5 min, and browning of button mushrooms was evaluated upon 16 d of storage at 4 °C. | |||||||||||||||||||
Control and SM-treated samples had higher open cap mushrooms (82.2% and 80.0%, respectively). Over the same period, the percentage of open cap mushrooms coated with TGZEOs, TSs and TG were in the range 66.7–75.6%. After 16 days, the control had higher PPO and POD activity (75 and 25 units/mg protein, respectively) resulting in higher browning rate, while TG-coated mushrooms had lower browning rate in the range of 25–70 units/mg protein PPO and 15–20 units/mg protein POD. | |||||||||||||||||||
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Zehnerria scabra | |||||||||||||||||||
Flupyradifurone | It is used to prevent sucking insects such as aphids, leafhopper, whitefly and | Lygus sp. | on citrus, pome and stone fruits, tree nuts, grapes, coffee, cocoa and leafy vegetables | Highly toxic to honey bees (oral LD | 50 | ) and aquatic life | 2016 | ||||||||||||
Angola | Tubers | Control banana fruit crown rot | Malathion | It is used to control aphids, red spider mites, mealybugs, thrips, scales and whiteflies on ornamentals, fruits and vegetables | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA and is now also classified as “Carc 1B” by the EU GHS | 2016 | |||||||||||||
Can cause skin cancer | Evaluation of plant extracts at various concentrations (1%, 5%, 10%, 25% and 50% concentration) against | C. musae | by dipping the fruits in plant extracts (at 25% concentration) for 5 min and allowed to air dry for 6 h. Banana hands dipped in chemical benomyl (0.1%) served as positive control while distilled water was used as a negative control. | Extracts of | Z. scabra | (25%) and recorded significant reduction of crown-rot disease up to 75% at room temperature (12 d of incubation) and up to 85% at cold storage (35 d of incubation) conditions. | [94] | Maneb | It is ethylene (bis) dithiocarbamate fungicide used in the control of early and late blights on potatoes and tomatoes and many other diseases of fruits, vegetables, field crops and ornamentals | Classified as an endocrine disruptor | 2016 | ||||||||
Pymetrozine | It is used to control aphids, brown planthopper and whiteflies in field vegetables, ornamentals, deciduous fruit and citrus | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA and is now also classified as “Carc 1B” by the EU GHS | 2016 | ||||||||||||||||
Quizalofop-p-tefuryl | Used as a selective post-emergence control of annual and perennial grass weeds in potatoes, soya beans, sugar beet, peanuts, oilseed rape, sunflowers, vegetables, cotton and flax. | Classified as an endocrine disruptor (EDC) | 2016 | ||||||||||||||||
Thiram | It is used to control stem gall of coriander, damping-off on allium crops and neck-rot of onion | Classified as toxic to aquatic zooplanktons | 2016 | ||||||||||||||||
Zineb | It is used as a broad-spectrum fungicide to control the scab in apples and pears, leaf curl in peaches and anthracnose and early blight in tomatoes | Classified as an endocrine disruptor | 2016 | ||||||||||||||||
Ziram | It is used as a broad-spectrum-use fungicide to control scab in apples and pears, leaf curl in peaches and anthracnose and early blight in tomatoes, controlling leaf blight and scab in almonds, shot-hole in apricots, brown rot and leaf spot in cherries, scab and anthracnose in pecans and leaf spot, rust and powdery mildew in ornamentals | Toxic to aquatic zooplanktons | 2016 | ||||||||||||||||
Propiconazole | In bananas, it is used to control | Mycosphaerella musicola | and | Mycosphaerella fijiensis | var. | difformis | ; in coffee, it is used against | Hemileia vastatrix | ; in stone fruits, it is used against | Monilinia | spp., | Podosphaera | spp., | Sphaerotheca | spp. and | Tranzschelia | spp.; soft rot on stone fruits | Classified as presumed human reproductive toxicant according to EU GHS | 2018 |
Propineb | It is used to control apple scab, leaf and fruit spots on pomegranate, control chili die-back and buckeye rot on tomato | Classified as a probable carcinogen by the US EPA Annual Cancer Report | 2018 |
Lippia javanica | ||||||||||
Botswana | The essential oil of leaves | To control | F. gramenearum | in sweet corn | The bioassays were carried out at concentrations of 0.87, 0.65, 0.43, 0.22, 0.11, 0.054 and 0.027 mg mL | −1 | (essential oil mL | −1 | ). | The maximum antifungal activity was recorded from the concentration of 0.87 g mL-, and the least activity was recorded for the least concentration of 0.027 g mL-. After the 3rd day, the inhibition zone for 0.87 g/mL was larger (25.00 mm) while 0.027 g/mL had the smallest inhibition zone (3.33 mm). After 14 days, 0.87 g/mL had an inhibition zone of 7 mm while 0.027 g/mL had 0 mm. |