The Standard and The Alternative Cosmological Models,

Distances Calculation to Galaxies without Hubble Constant

For the alternative cosmological models considered in the extended version of this entry

For the alternative cosmological models considered in the extended version of this entry [1], the distances  are calculated for galaxies without using the Hubble constant. This process is mentioned in the second narrative, and described in detail in the third narration. According to the third narrative, as the density of the relativistic mass of the universe decreases while the universe expands, new matter is created by a phase transition process which results in a continuously constant ordinary density of matter. While the universe develops on the basis of this postulate of the emergence of new matter, it is "assumed that matter arises as a result of such a phase transition of dark energy into both new dark and visible matter. It is somewhat irrelevant how we describe dark energy, calling it aether, or vice versa, the changing of aether into dark energy. It should be clear to everyone that this renaming does not change the essence of this phase transition phenomena. It should be noted that, unlike all well‐known geometric models of the Euclidean space of our existence, this phase transition of dark energy into matter would accordingly be a stereographic projection of a three‐dimensional surface on to a four‐dimensional globe.