Geopolymers as Construction Materials: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Bruce Ren and Version 1 by Ezzatollah Shamsaei.

Utilising geopolymer as a construction material has gained institutional and commercial interest over the past decade, due to its favourable emissions profile as an alternative to carbon-intensive Ordinary Portland Cement-based concrete, which currently accounts for around 7% of global carbon emissions.

  • geopolymer concrete
  • commercialisation
  • material properties
  • economic factors
  • social attitudes
  • regulatory environment
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. IEA. Cement Technology Roadmap Plots Path to Cutting CO2 Emissions 24% by 2050. Available online: (accessed on 4 March 2021).
  2. Davidovits, J.; Cordi, S. Synthesis of new high temperature geo-polymers for reinforced plastics/composites. SPE PACTEC 1979, 79, 151–154.
  3. Singh, B.N. Fly ash-based geopolymer binder: A future construction material. Minerals 2018, 8, 299.
  4. Teh, S.H.; Wiedmann, T.; Castel, A.; de Burgh, J. Hybrid life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from cement, concrete and geopolymer concrete in Australia. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 152, 312–320.
  5. Karantonis, J.L. The Hazards of Fly Ash. UNSW Canberra ADFA J. Undergrad. Eng. Res. 2012, 4, 1–11.
  6. McLellan, B.C.; Williams, R.P.; Lay, J.; van Riessen, A.; Corder, G.D. Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement. J. Clean. Prod. 2011, 19, 1080–1090.
  7. Turner, L.K.; Collins, F.G. Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) emissions: A comparison between geopolymer and OPC cement concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 43, 125–130.
  8. Sandanayake, M.; Gunasekara, C.; Law, D.; Zhang, G.; Setunge, S.; Wanijuru, D. Sustainable criterion selection framework for green building materials–An optimisation based study of fly-ash Geopolymer concrete. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 2020, 25, e00178.
  9. Zhuang, X.Y.; Chen, L.; Komarneni, S.; Zhou, C.H.; Tong, D.S.; Yang, H.M.; Yu, W.H.; Wang, H. Fly ash-based geopolymer: Clean production, properties and applications. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 125, 253–267.
  10. Rahman, S.K.; Al-Ameri, R. A newly developed self-compacting geopolymer concrete under ambient condition. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 267, 121822.
  11. Pham, T.M.; Liu, J.; Tran, P.; Pang, V.-L.; Shi, F.; Chen, W.; Hao, H.; Tran, T.M. Dynamic compressive properties of lightweight rubberized geopolymer concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 265, 120753.
  12. Gildenhuys, H. Pioneering a New Approach to Sustainable Concrete in Western Australia: Geopolymer Concrete from Fly-Ash with Recycled Aggregates. Bachelor’s Thesis, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia, 6 December 2020.
  13. Van Jaarsveld, J.; van Deventer, J.; Schwartzman, A. The potential use of geopolymeric materials to immobilise toxic metals: Part II. Material and leaching characteristics. Miner. Eng. 1999, 12, 75–91.
  14. Van Deventer, J.S. The conversion of mineral waste to modern materials using geopolymerisation. In Proceedings of the MINPREX 2000 International Congress on Mineral and Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, Melbourne, Australia, 1 January 2000; The Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne, Australia, 2000; pp. 11–13.
  15. Van Deventer, J.S.J.; Feng, D.; Duxson, P. Dry Mix Cement Composition, Methods and Systems Involving Same. U.S. Patent 7691198B2, 6 April 2010.
  16. Wagners Earth Friendly Concrete (EFC). Geopolymer Concrete. Available online: (accessed on 4 March 2021).
  17. HBM Group Pty Ltd. Ash Development Association of Australia, Annual Membership Survey Results 2018; ADAA National Office: Wollongong, Australia, 2019.
  18. Dirgantara, R.; Gunasekara, C.; Law, D.W.; Molyneaux, T.K. Suitability of brown coal fly ash for geopolymer production. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2017, 29, 04017247.
  19. CCAA. AUSTRALIA’S CONCRETE INDUSTRY REPORTS RECORD PRODUCTION YEAR. Available online: (accessed on 4 March 2021).
  20. Yu, M.; Wiedmann, T.; Crawford, R.; Tait, C. The carbon footprint of Australia’s construction sector. Procedia Eng. 2017, 180, 211–220.
  21. Nazari, A.; Sanjayan, J.G. Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2016.
  22. American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete; ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2013.
  23. Khodr, M.; Law, D.; Gunasekara, C.; Setunge, S. Initial Development of Brown Coal Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete Bricks. In Proceedings of the 28th Biennial National Conference of the Concrete Institute of Australia, Adelaide, Australia, 22–25 October 2017.
  24. Tennakoon, C.; Sagoe-Crentsil, K.; Sanjayan, J.G.; Shayan, A. Early Age Properties of Alkali Activated Brown Coal Fly ash binders. Adv. Mater. Res. 2014, 931–932, 457–462.
  25. Tennakoon, C.; Sagoe-Crentsil, K.; San Nicolas, R.; Sanjayan, J.G. Characteristics of Australian brown coal fly ash blended geopolymers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 101, 396–409.
  26. Standards Australia. AS/NZS 3582.1:2016-Supplementary Cementitious Materials; Part 1: Fly Ash; SAI Global Limited: Sydney, Australia, 2016.
  27. Mucsi, G.; Molnar, Z.; Kumar, S. Geopolymerisation of Mechanically Activated Lignite and Brown Coal Fly Ash. Acta Phys. Pol. A. 2014, 126.
  28. Rieger, D.; Kullová, L.; Čekalová, M.; Novotný, P.; Pola, M. Mechanically activated fly ash as a high performance binder for civil engineering. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2017, 790, 012030.
  29. Ismail, I.; Provis, J.; Van Deventer, J.; Hamdan, S. The effect of water content on compressive strength of geopolymer mortars. In Proceedings of the AES-ATEMA’2011 International Conference on Advances and Trends in Engineering Materials and Their Applications, Milan, Italy, 4–8 July 2011.
  30. Abdel-Gawwad, H.; Abo-El-Enein, S. A novel method to produce dry geopolymer cement powder. HBRC J. 2016, 12, 13–24.
  31. Xing, Y.; Guo, F.; Xu, M.; Gui, X.; Li, H.; Li, G.; Xia, Y.; Han, H. Separation of unburned carbon from coal fly ash: A review. Powder Technol. 2019, 353, 372–384.
  32. Thomas, M. Optimizing the Use of Fly Ash in concrete; Portland Cement Association Skokie IL: Skokie, IL, USA, 2007; Volume 5420.
  33. Chan, C.; Thorpe, D.; Islam, M. An evaluation of life long fly ash based geopolymer cement and ordinary Portland cement costs using extended life cycle cost method in Australia. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), Singapore, 6–9 December 2015; pp. 52–56.
  34. Holdgate, G.R. Geological processes that control lateral and vertical variability in coal seam moisture contents—Latrobe Valley (Gippsland Basin) Australia. Int. J. Coal Geol. 2005, 63, 130–155.
  35. Cement Industry Federation. Australian Cement Report. Available online: (accessed on 30 March 2021).
  36. Macdonald-Smith, A.; Potter, B. LNG, Steel, Cement to Be Hit by Labor’s Carbon Plan. Available online: (accessed on 30 March 2021).
  37. Phoo-ngernkham, T.; Phiangphimai, C.; Intarabut, D.; Hanjitsuwan, S.; Damrongwiriyanupap, N.; Li, L.-Y.; Chindaprasirt, P. Low cost and sustainable repair material made from alkali-activated high-calcium fly ash with calcium carbide residue. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 247, 118543.
  38. Phetchuay, C.; Horpibulsuk, S.; Suksiripattanapong, C.; Chinkulkijniwat, A.; Arulrajah, A.; Disfani, M.M. Calcium carbide residue: Alkaline activator for clay–fly ash geopolymer. Constr. Build. Mater. 2014, 69, 285–294.
  39. Lehmann, S. Sustainable construction for urban infill development using engineered massive wood panel systems. Sustainability 2012, 4, 2707–2742.
  40. Mallo, M.F.L.; Espinoza, O.A. Outlook for cross-laminated timber in the United States. BioResources 2014, 9, 7427–7443.
  41. Dodge Data & Analytics. World Green Building Trends 2018. Available online: (accessed on 4 March 2021).
  42. The Zeobond Group. E-crete Brochure. Available online: (accessed on 4 March 2021).
  43. Wagners. Pinkenba Wharf. Available online: (accessed on 29 March 2021).
  44. Standards Australia. AS3600:2018—Concrete Structures; SAI Global Limited: Sydney, Australia, 2018.
  45. Standards Australia. AS 1379-2007—Specification and Supply of Concrete; SAI Global Limited: Sydney, Australia, 2007.
  46. Standards Australia. AS 3972-2010—General Purpose and Blended Cements; SAI Global Limited: Sydney, Australia, 2010.
  47. VicRoads. Section 705—Drainage Pits; VicRoads: Melbourne, Australia, 2013.
  48. VicRoads. Section 701—Underground Stormwater Drains; VicRoads: Melbourne, Australia, 2015.
  49. VicRoads. Section 703—General Concrete Paving; VicRoads: Melbourne, Australia, 2016.
  50. VicRoads. Section 711—Wire Rope Safety Barrier (WRSB); VicRoads: Melbourne, Australia, 2017.
  51. VicRoads. Section 708—Steel Beam Guard Fence; VicRoads: Melbourne, Australia, 2018.
  52. Berndt, M.; Sanjayan, J.; Foster, S.; Castel, A.; Rajeev, P.; Heidrich, C. Progress Towards a Handbook for Geopolymer Concrete’. In Proceedings of the 27th Biennial National Conference of the Concrete Institute of Australia (Concrete 2015), Melbourne, Australia, 31 August–2 September 2015.
  53. The Zeobond Group. Projects: Templestowe. Available online: (accessed on 4 March 2021).
More