Cocoa Shell: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Rita Xu and Version 1 by Veronika Barišić.

The article gives a short insight into current research regarding use of cocoa shell. The positive impact of cocoa shell on nutritional value of food was emphasized, such as increase of fiber content, enrichment with polyphenols, positive impact on glucose metabolism. However, potential shortcomings, such as mycotoxins, PAHs, and microbial contamination are also discussed.

  • cocoa shell

Cocoa Shell

The cocoa industry generates large amounts of waste that consist of pod husk, pulp, and bean shell. Namely, cocoa beans, which are the main ingredient in chocolate production, are removed from the cocoa pod, after which they are fermented and dried. Cocoa bean shell is removed from seeds before or after roasting of the beans [9].

The cocoa industry generates large amounts of waste that consist of pod husk, pulp, and bean shell. Namely, cocoa beans, which are the main ingredient in chocolate production, are removed from the cocoa pod, after which they are fermented and dried. Cocoa bean shell is removed from seeds before or after roasting of the beans [1].

 

After the separation of the shell from the seed, it is usually discarded or sold as agricultural mulch. Since the shell presents 12%-20% of the bean, it is obvious that this is the largest waste generated after processing the beans [2][3][4]. According to International Cocoa Organization [5], the world generation of cocoa waste can be estimated to 700 thousand tons per year.

After the separation of the shell from the seed, it is usually discarded or sold as agricultural mulch. Since the shell presents 12%-20% of the bean, it is obvious that this is the largest waste generated after processing the beans [10,11,12]. According to International Cocoa Organization [3], the world generation of cocoa waste can be estimated to 700 thousand tons per year.
Cocoa shellCocoa shell separated after the roasting.

Cocoa shell separated after the roasting.

 

Cocoa shell has an interesting composition. It is rich in dietary fibers, proteins [4], polyphenols [6][7], methylxanthines [8], etc.

Cocoa shell has an interesting composition. It is rich in dietary fibers, proteins [12], polyphenols [13,14], methylxanthines [15], etc.

Dietary fibers are generally divided into soluble and insoluble fibers. The soluble/insoluble ratio is very important in human nutrition, and cocoa bean shell has a ratio close to desirable, giving it potential for direct implementation in food [9]. Dietary fibers of cocoa shell are mainly composed of pectin and cellulose [6]. In addition, cocoa shell is rich in flavanols (catechin and epicatechin), which have an antioxidant activity, and methylxanthines (theobromine and caffeine), which have an effect on the human nervous system [10][11]. Okiyama et al. [12] investigated the lipid profile of cocoa shell and concluded that it is similar to that of cocoa butter, which could lead to its application as a partial substitute for cocoa butter.

 
Dietary fibers are generally divided into soluble and insoluble fibers. The soluble/insoluble ratio is very important in human nutrition, and cocoa bean shell has a ratio close to desirable, giving it potential for direct implementation in food [17]. Dietary fibers of cocoa shell are mainly composed of pectin and cellulose [13]. In addition, cocoa shell is rich in flavanols (catechin and epicatechin), which have an antioxidant activity, and methylxanthines (theobromine and caffeine), which have an effect on the human nervous system [18,19]. Okiyama et al. [20] investigated the lipid profile of cocoa shell and concluded that it is similar to that of cocoa butter, which could lead to its application as a partial substitute for cocoa butter.

Use of Cocoa Shell in Food Production

Cocoa shell composition has driven many scientists into implementing cocoa shell directly in food products and investigating the properties and sensorial acceptance of the obtained products. In addition, there are research that investigated the application of different components of cocoa shell as a food ingredient. This subsection gives an overview of papers that have addressed this topic.

Cocoa shell composition has driven many scientists into implementing cocoa shell directly in food products and investigating the properties and sensorial acceptance of the obtained products. In addition, there are research that investigated the application of different components of cocoa shell as a food ingredient. This subsection gives an overview of papers that have addressed this topic.

 

Martinez-Cervera et al. [13] produced chocolate muffins with the addition of soluble dietary fiber extracted from cocoa shell as a fat replacer. They observed decreased hardening during storage, appropriate texture, higher moisture, and appealing color of enriched muffins. In another research soluble dietary fibers from cocoa shell were used in production of wheat bread in contents up to 6% without negative effect on sensory properties and storage, with positive impact - a softening effect [14]. The beneficial effect of commonly consumed products enriched with dietary fibers from the cocoa shell, such as muffins and bread, effects on glucose absorption was shown in an in vitro study by Nsor-Atindana et al. [15], striking the potential of cocoa shell as a food component.

Martinez-Cervera et al. [21] produced chocolate muffins with the addition of soluble dietary fiber extracted from cocoa shell as a fat replacer. They observed decreased hardening during storage, appropriate texture, higher moisture, and appealing color of enriched muffins. In another research soluble dietary fibers from cocoa shell were used in production of wheat bread in contents up to 6% without negative effect on sensory properties and storage, with positive impact - a softening effect [22]. The beneficial effect of commonly consumed products enriched with dietary fibers from the cocoa shell, such as muffins and bread, effects on glucose absorption was shown in an in vitro study by Nsor-Atindana et al. [23], striking the potential of cocoa shell as a food component.

Mazzutti et al. [11] explored the potential of producing both lipid-enriched and phenolic-rich extracts from cocoa shell, stressing their great potential for incorporation in food products. However, polyphenols are heat-sensitive components and solutions have been sought to preserve them during thermal treatment of food. Papillo et al. [16] used spray-drying with maltodextrins to achieve this. Results showed that polyphenols in these extracts were protected during baking and storage.

 

Alkalized cocoa shell has also found its way into food production. Bernaert and Rysscher [17] used it for production of a cocoa beverage with a unique taste and rich in dietary fibers. In another study, they concluded that cocoa shell powder could be used in different food products as a replacement for cocoa powder [18]. Alkalized cocoa shell was used also in the production of cookies, and the obtained product showed higher resistance to breaking compared to wheat cookies [19]. Another study was conducted to investigate functional beverages with cocoa shell [20], where beverages with the highest content of bioactive compounds were the least appreciated by consumers. This was probably because of polyphenols and methylxanthines that give an astringent taste to these products.

Mazzutti et al. [19] explored the potential of producing both lipid-enriched and phenolic-rich extracts from cocoa shell, stressing their great potential for incorporation in food products. However, polyphenols are heat-sensitive components and solutions have been sought to preserve them during thermal treatment of food. Papillo et al. [24] used spray-drying with maltodextrins to achieve this. Results showed that polyphenols in these extracts were protected during baking and storage.

Some direct implementations of cocoa shell in food products without previous processing include the production of pork sausages [21] and extruded snack products [22]. Pork sausages with levels of cocoa shell of 1% or lower had improved color, viscosity, moisture content, and emulsion stability. It is important to emphasize that the addition of cocoa bean shell inhibited lipid oxidation in these products. Jozinović et al. [22] added cocoa shell in extruded snack products in amounts of 5%, 10%, and 15%. This enrichment increased resistant starch and polyphenol content. Although physical properties were slightly poorer than in conventional products, they were still sensoricaly acceptable.

 

Cocoa shell will also be interesting for incorporation in chocolates because it would not need to be transported from chocolate factories. It would be directly used in chocolate production, which would decrease the cost of its use. A great deal of research has been done with focus on enrichment of chocolates with fiber sources where they replaced sugar or fat [15]. This gives promising hope that the use of cocoa shell in chocolate production could come to life and the project "Application of cocoa husk in production of chocolate and chocolate-like products" financed by Croatian Science Foundation (UIP 2017-05-8709) is aiming to achieve this. The list of publications resulting from the project may be found here.

Alkalized cocoa shell has also found its way into food production. Bernaert and Rysscher [25] used it for production of a cocoa beverage with a unique taste and rich in dietary fibers. In another study, they concluded that cocoa shell powder could be used in different food products as a replacement for cocoa powder [26]. Alkalized cocoa shell was used also in the production of cookies, and the obtained product showed higher resistance to breaking compared to wheat cookies [27]. Another study was conducted to investigate functional beverages with cocoa shell [28], where beverages with the highest content of bioactive compounds were the least appreciated by consumers. This was probably because of polyphenols and methylxanthines that give an astringent taste to these products.
 
Some direct implementations of cocoa shell in food products without previous processing include the production of pork sausages [29] and extruded snack products [30]. Pork sausages with levels of cocoa shell of 1% or lower had improved color, viscosity, moisture content, and emulsion stability. It is important to emphasize that the addition of cocoa bean shell inhibited lipid oxidation in these products. Jozinović et al. [30] added cocoa shell in extruded snack products in amounts of 5%, 10%, and 15%. This enrichment increased resistant starch and polyphenol content. Although physical properties were slightly poorer than in conventional products, they were still sensoricaly acceptable.
Cocoa shell will also be interesting for incorporation in chocolates because it would not need to be transported from chocolate factories. It would be directly used in chocolate production, which would decrease the cost of its use. A great deal of research has been done with focus on enrichment of chocolates with fiber sources where they replaced sugar or fat [23]. This gives promising hope that the use of cocoa shell in chocolate production could come to life and the project "Application of cocoa husk in production of chocolate and chocolate-like products" financed by Croatian Science Foundation (UIP 2017-05-8709) is aiming to achieve this. The list of publications resulting from the project may be found here.

Problems with Use of Cocoa Shell in Food Production

Since it is obvious that cocoa bean shell has great potential and it is rich in many bioactive components that can benefit human health, why is it not used in food production yet? One of the reasons is that cocoa shell may contain undesirable components that need to be removed before its incorporation in food products. Some of these components are mycotoxins, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and microorganisms.

Since it is obvious that cocoa bean shell has great potential and it is rich in many bioactive components that can benefit human health, why is it not used in food production yet? One of the reasons is that cocoa shell may contain undesirable components that need to be removed before its incorporation in food products. Some of these components are mycotoxins, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and microorganisms.

Mycotoxins

Cocoa beans are fermented, dried, and stored most commonly in unhygienic conditions, since the majority of operations are held outside. The result is that they are often contaminated with

Cocoa beans are fermented, dried, and stored most commonly in unhygienic conditions, since the majority of operations are held outside. The result is that they are often contaminated with

Aspergillus, Eurotium

, and

Absidia species [10]. Copetti et al. [32] reported that ochratoxin A, which is produced by fungi of

species [2]. Copetti et al. [23] reported that ochratoxin A, which is produced by fungi of

Aspergillus

and

Penicillium genera, are concentrated in cocoa shell, while only small amounts of the toxin are detected in cocoa nibs. This toxin is present in a wide variety of foods like coffee beans, dried fruit, and cereals [33]. Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 have been found in cocoa shell, also more frequently than other parts of bean. They appeared in 11% of the samples [34]. These components are very stable and cannot be completely destroyed during processes conducted during the production of chocolate [35].

genera, are concentrated in cocoa shell, while only small amounts of the toxin are detected in cocoa nibs. This toxin is present in a wide variety of foods like coffee beans, dried fruit, and cereals [24]. Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 have been found in cocoa shell, also more frequently than other parts of bean. They appeared in 11% of the samples [25]. These components are very stable and cannot be completely destroyed during processes conducted during the production of chocolate [26].

Heavy Metals

Cocoa bean may be contaminated with heavy metals because of environmental and external influences [36]. A major concern is the presence of nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb) [37]. Most research mentioned below were conducted to examine heavy metal contents in chocolate and cocoa products [38,39]. Increased contamination was mostly because of the use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, etc. If these activities are not controlled and managed according to Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), they can lead to increased content of heavy metals [40]. Additionally, fermentation, drying, crushing, and contact with metal devices during processing can affect the content of heavy metals [41].

Cocoa bean may be contaminated with heavy metals because of environmental and external influences [27]. A major concern is the presence of nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb) [28]. Most research mentioned below were conducted to examine heavy metal contents in chocolate and cocoa products [29][30]. Increased contamination was mostly because of the use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, etc. If these activities are not controlled and managed according to Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), they can lead to increased content of heavy metals [31]. Additionally, fermentation, drying, crushing, and contact with metal devices during processing can affect the content of heavy metals [32].

 

Cocoa shell in most cases has higher content of these compounds because of its high absorption capacity. This characteristic is used in a few researches to examine cocoa shell as a new adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from polluted water [33][34].

Cocoa shell in most cases has higher content of these compounds because of its high absorption capacity. This characteristic is used in a few researches to examine cocoa shell as a new adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from polluted water [42,43].

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

PAHs are known as genotoxic carcinogens and in cocoa beans can be produced during drying and roasting [44,45]. They are formed in roasted foods rich in carbohydrates through two processes: pyrolysis and pyrosynthesis [46,47]. The increased content of PAHs in cocoa beans is most often the result of inappropriate drying. The highest risk of contamination is present in artificial drying when producers use firewood or fossil fuel [48]. In addition, Ciecierska [45] concluded that even low temperatures during roasting of beans favor the development of PAHs. Since, most often, cocoa beans are roasted with cocoa shell, there is a high possibility that the cocoa shell is also contaminated with PAHs. Agus et al. [49] reported that roasted cocoa shell had lower amounts of PAHs than dried cocoa shell. This could be due to migration of these compounds in cocoa nibs during roasting.

PAHs are known as genotoxic carcinogens and in cocoa beans can be produced during drying and roasting [35][36]. They are formed in roasted foods rich in carbohydrates through two processes: pyrolysis and pyrosynthesis [37][38]. The increased content of PAHs in cocoa beans is most often the result of inappropriate drying. The highest risk of contamination is present in artificial drying when producers use firewood or fossil fuel [39]. In addition, Ciecierska [36] concluded that even low temperatures during roasting of beans favor the development of PAHs. Since, most often, cocoa beans are roasted with cocoa shell, there is a high possibility that the cocoa shell is also contaminated with PAHs. Agus et al. [40] reported that roasted cocoa shell had lower amounts of PAHs than dried cocoa shell. This could be due to migration of these compounds in cocoa nibs during roasting.

Microorganisms

During drying in cocoa farms, birds and insects frequently come into contact with cocoa seeds. They are transmitters of

During drying in cocoa farms, birds and insects frequently come into contact with cocoa seeds. They are transmitters of

Escherichia coli

and

Salmonella [6]. Although cocoa beans are subjected to roasting, the research of Izurieta and Komitopoulou [50] showed that

[41]. Although cocoa beans are subjected to roasting, the research of Izurieta and Komitopoulou [42] showed that

Salmonella strains present on cocoa shell were heat resistant. To minimize risk of contamination of cocoa beans, good hygiene and manufacturing practices should be implemented in cocoa farms. Leaving cocoa beans unprotected should be avoided so that contact with transmitters of contamination can be reduced [51].
 
 
  • Vásquez, Z.S.; de Carvalho Neto, D.P.; Pereira, G.V.M.; Vandenberghe, L.P.S.; de Oliveira, P.Z.; Tiburcio, P.B.; Rogez, H.L.G.; Góes Neto, A.; Soccol, C.R. Biotechnological approaches for cocoa waste management; A review. Waste Manag. 2019, 90, 72–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Okiyama, D.C.G.; Navarro, S.L.B.; Rodrigues, C.E.C. Cocoa shell and its compounds: Applications in the food industry. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 63, 103–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Djali, M.; Siti Setiasih, I.; Rindiantika, T.S. Chemical characteristics, phytochemical and cacao shell toxicity changes during the processing of cocoa beans. Asian J. Agri. Biol. 2018, 6, 103–114. [Google Scholar]
  • International Cocoa Organization. Production of Cocoa Beans; ICCO Quarterly Bulletin of Cocoa Statistics, XLII; ICCO: London, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  • Redgwell, R.; Trovato, V.; Merinat, S.; Curti, D.; Hediger, S.; Manez, A. Dietary fibre in cocoa shell: Characterization of component polysaccharides. Food Chem. 2003, 81, 103–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Martínez, R.; Torres, P.; Meneses, M.A.; Figueroa, J.G.; Pérez-Álvarez, J.A.; Viuda-Martos, M. Chemical, technological and in vitro antioxidant properties of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) co-products. Food Res. Int. 2012, 49, 39–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Barišić, V.; Flanjak, I.; Križić, I.; Jozinović, A.; Šubarić, D.; Babić, J.; Miličević, B.; Ačkar, Đ. Impact of high-voltage electric discharge treatment on cocoa shell phenolic components and methylxanthines. J. Food Process Eng. 2020, 43, e13057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Rusconi, M.; Conti, A. Theobroma cacao L., the food of the Gods: A scientific approach beyond myths and claims. Pharmacol. Res. 2010, 61, 5–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Vojvodić, A.; Komes, D.; Vovk, I.; Belščak-Cvitanović, A.; Bušić, A. Compositional evaluation of selected agro-industrial wastes as valuable sources for the recovery of complex carbohydrates. Food Res. Int. 2016, 89, 565–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Grillo, G.; Boffa, L.; Binello, A.; Mantegna, S.; Cravotto, G.; Chemat, F.; Dizhbite, T.; Lauberte, L.; Telysheva, G. Cocoa bean shell waste valorization; extraction from lab to pilot-scale cavitation reactors. Food Res. Int. 2019, 115, 200–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Mazzutti, S.; Rodrigues, L.G.G.; Mezzomo, N.; Venturi, V.; Ferreira, S.R.S. Integrated green-based processes using supercritical CO2 and pressurized ethanol applied to recover antioxidant compouds from cocoa (Theobroma cacao) bean hulls. J. Supercrit. Fluid 2018, 135, 52–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Okiyama, D.C.G.; Soares, I.D.; Toda, T.A.; Oliveira, A.L.; Rodrigues, C.E.C. Effect of the temperature on the kinetics of cocoa bean shell fat extraction using pressurized ethanol and evaluation of the lipid fraction and defatted meal. Ind. Crops. Prod. 2019, 130, 96–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Martínez-Cervera, S.; Salvador, A.; Muguerza, B.; Moulay, L.; Fiszman, S.M. Cocoa fibre and its application as a fat replacer in chocolate muffins. LWT 2011, 44, 729–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Collar, C.; Rosell, C.M.; Muguerza, B.; Moulay, L. Breadmaking performance and keeping behavior of cocoa-soluble fiber-enriched wheat breads. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 2009, 15, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Nsor-Atindana, J.; Zhong, F.; Mothibe, K.J. In vitro hypoglycemic and cholesterol lowering effects of dietary fiber prepared from cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) shells. Food Funct. 2012, 3, 1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Papillo, V.A.; Locatelli, M.; Travaglia, F.; Bordiga, M.; Garino, C.; Coïsson, J.D.; Arlorio, M. Cocoa hulls polyphenols stabilized by microencapsulation as functional ingredient for bakery applications. Food Res. Int. 2019, 115, 511–518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Bernaert, H.; Ruysscher, I.D. Process, Use, and Product. U.S. Patent 2016135478A1, 27 January 2016. [Google Scholar]
  • Bernaert, H.; Ruysscher, I.D. Process of Producing Cocoa Shell Powder. U.S. Patent 9,375,024B2, 26 June 2013. [Google Scholar]
  • Handojo, L.; Triharyogi, H.; Indarto, A. Cocoa bean shell waste as potential raw material for dietary fiber powder. Int. J. Recycl. Org. Waste Agric. 2019, 8, 485–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Rojo-Poveda, O.; Barbosa-Pereira, L.; Mateus-Reguengo, L.; Bertolino, M.; Stévigny, C.; Zeppa, G. Effects of Particle Size and Extraction Methods on Cocoa Bean Shell Functional Beverage. Nutrients 2019, 11, 867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Choi, J.; Kim, N.; Choi, H.Y.; Han, Y.S. Effect of Cacao Bean Husk Powder on the Quality Properties of Pork Sausages. Food Sci. Anim. Resour. 2019, 39, 742–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Jozinović, A.; Panak Balentić, J.; Ačkar, Đ.; Babić, J.; Pajin, B.; Miličević, B.; Guberac, S.; Vrdoljak, A.; Šubarić, D. Cocoa husk application in the enrichment of extruded snack products. J. Food Process Preserv. 2019, 43, e13866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Barišić, V.; Jozinović, A.; Flanjak, I.; Šubarić, D.; Babić, J.; Miličević, B.; Jokić, S.; Ačkar, Đ. Effect of addition of fibers and polyphenols on properties of chocolate—A review. Food Rev. Int. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Copetti, M.V.; Iamanaka, B.T.; Nester, M.A.; Efraim, P.; Taniwaki, M.H. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cocoa by-products and determination of its reduction during chocolate manufacture. Food Chem. 2013, 136, 100–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Brera, C.; Debegnach, F.; De Santis, B.; Iafrate, E.; Pannunzi, E.; Berdini, C.; Prantera, E.; Gregori, E.; Miraglia, M. Ochratoxin A in cocoa and chocolate products from the Italian market: Occurrence and exposure assessment. Food Cont. 2011, 22, 1663–1667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Copetti, M.V.; Iamanaka, B.T.; Pereira, J.L.; Lemes, D.P.; Nakano, F.; Taniwaki, M.H. Determination of aflatoxins in by-products of industrial processing of cocoa beans. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2012, 29, 972–978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Bonvehi, J.S. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cocoa products and chocolate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 6347–6352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Amézqueta, S.; Gonzalez-Penas, E.; Murillo, M.; de Cerain, A.L. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cocoa beans: Effect of shelling. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22, 590–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Assa, A.; Noor, A.; Yunus, M.R.; Djide, M.N. Heavy metal concentrations in cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao L.) originating from East Luwu, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2018, 979, 12011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Rankin, C.W.; Nriagu, J.O.; Aggarwal, J.K.; Arowolo, T.A.; Adebayo, K.; Flegal, A.R. Lead contamination in cocoa and cocoa products: Isotopic evidence of global contamination. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1344–1348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Dahiya, S.; Karpe, R.; Hegde, A.; Sharma, R.M. Lead, cadmium, and nickel in chocolates and candies from suburban areas of Mumbai India. J. Food Compost. Anal. 2005, 18, 517–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Aikpopodion, P.E.; Odule, A.; Osobamiro, O.C.; Oduwole, T.; Ademola, S.M. A survey of copper, lead, cadmium and zinc residues in cocoa beans obtained from selected plantations in Nigeria. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2013, 56, 88–98. [Google Scholar]
  • Kruszewski, B.; Obiedziński, M.W.; Kowalskad, J. Nickel, cadmium and lead levels in raw cocoa and processed chocolate mass materials from three different manufacturers. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2018, 66, 127–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Meunier, N.; Laroulandie, J.; Blais, J.F.; Tyagi, R.D. Lead Removal from Acidic Solutions by Sorption on Cocoa Shells: Effect of Some Parameters. J. Environ. Eng. 2003, 129, 693–698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Meunier, N.; Blais, J.F.; Tyagi, R.D. Removal of heavy metals from acid soil leachate using cocoa shells in a batch counter-current sorption process. Hydrometallurgy 2004, 73, 225–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Scientific Committee on Food. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons—Occurrence in Foods, Dietary Exposure and Health Effects. Report No. SCF/CS/CNTM/PAH/29 Add1 Final. 4 December 2002. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/index_en.html (accessed on 27 February 2020).
  • Ciecierska, M. Cocoa beans of different origins and varieties and their derived products contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Food Chem. 2020, 317, 126408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Cheng, W.; Liu, G.; Wang, X.; Liu, X.; Liu, B. Formation of benzo[a]pyrene in sesame seeds during the roasting process for production of sesame seed oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2015, 92, 1725–1733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • Singh, S.G. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons formed during Roasting Process in Arabica Coffee Beans; Thapar University: Punjab, India, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  • Misnawi, J. Effect of cocoa bean drying methods on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination in cocoa butter. Int. Food Res. J. 2012, 19, 1589–1594. [Google Scholar]
  • Agus, B.A.P.; Hussain, N.; Selamat, J. Quantification of PAH4 in Roasted Cocoa Beans Using QuEChERS and Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Micro-extraction (DLLME) Coupled with HPLC-FLD. Food Chem. 2019, 125398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  • Izurieta, W.P.; Komitopoulou, E. Effect of moisture on salmonella spp. heat resistance in cocoa and hazelnut shells. Food Res. Int. 2012, 45, 1087–1092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  • do Nascimento, M.D.S.; Pena, P.O.; Brum, D.M.; Imazaki, F.T.; Tucci, M.L.S.; Efraim, P. Behavior of Salmonella during fermentation, drying and storage of cocoa beans. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 167, 363–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

strains present on cocoa shell were heat resistant. To minimize risk of contamination of cocoa beans, good hygiene and manufacturing practices should be implemented in cocoa farms. Leaving cocoa beans unprotected should be avoided so that contact with transmitters of contamination can be reduced [43].

References

  1. Zulma S. Vásquez; Dão Pedro De Carvalho Neto; Gilberto Vinícius De Melo Pereira; Luciana P.S. Vandenberghe; Priscilla Z. De Oliveira; Patrick B. Tiburcio; Hervé Rogez; Aristóteles Góes Neto; Carlos Ricardo Soccol; Biotechnological approaches for cocoa waste management: A review.. Waste Management 2019, 90, 72-83, 10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.030.
  2. Dayane C.G. Okiyama; Sandra L.B. Navarro; Christianne E.C. Rodrigues; Cocoa shell and its compounds: Applications in the food industry. Trends in Food Science & Technology 2017, 63, 103-112, 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.03.007.
  3. Djali, M.; Siti Setiasih, I.; Rindiantika, T.S. Chemical characteristics, phytochemical and cacao shell toxicity changes during the processing of cocoa beans. Asian J. Agri. Biol. 2018, 6, 103–114.
  4. International Cocoa Organization. Production of Cocoa Beans; ICCO Quarterly Bulletin of Cocoa Statistics, XLII; ICCO: London, UK, 2016.
  5. Patricia Gullón; María Jesús González-Muñoz; Juan Carlos Parajó; Manufacture and prebiotic potential of oligosaccharides derived from industrial solid wastes. Bioresource Technology 2011, 102, 6112-6119, 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.02.059.
  6. Redgwell, R.; Trovato, V.; Merinat, S.; Curti, D.; Hediger, S.; Manez, A. Dietary fibre in cocoa shell: Characterization of component polysaccharides. Food Chem. 2003, 81, 103–112.
  7. R. Martinez; P. Torres; Miguel Meneses; Jorge G Figueroa; José Ángel Pérez-Álvarez; Manuel Viuda-Martos; Chemical, technological and in vitro antioxidant properties of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) co-products. Food Research International 2012, 49, 39-45, 10.1016/j.foodres.2012.08.005.
  8. Veronika Barišić; Ivana Flanjak; Ivana Križić; Antun Jozinović; Drago Šubarić; Jurislav Babić; Borislav Miličević; Đurđica Ačkar; Impact of high‐voltage electric discharge treatment on cocoa shell phenolic components and methylxanthines. Journal of Food Process Engineering 2020, 43, e13057, 10.1111/jfpe.13057.
  9. Aleksandra Vojvodić; Draženka Komes; Irena Vovk; Ana Belščak-Cvitanović; Arijana Bušić; Compositional evaluation of selected agro-industrial wastes as valuable sources for the recovery of complex carbohydrates. Food Research International 2016, 89, 565-573, 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.07.023.
  10. Grillo, G.; Boffa, L.; Binello, A.; Mantegna, S.; Cravotto, G.; Chemat, F.; Dizhbite, T.; Lauberte, L.; Telysheva, G; Cocoa bean shell waste valorization; extraction from lab to pilot-scale cavitation reactors. Food Res. Int. 2019, 115, 200–208.
  11. Simone Mazzutti; Luiz Gustavo Gonçalves Rodrigues; Natália Mezzomo; Valentina Venturi; Sandra R.S. Ferreira; Integrated green-based processes using supercritical CO2 and pressurized ethanol applied to recover antioxidant compouds from cocoa (Theobroma cacao) bean hulls. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 2018, 135, 52-59, 10.1016/j.supflu.2017.12.039.
  12. Dayane C.G. Okiyama; Ingrid Denardi Soares; Tatiane A. Toda; Alessandra Lopes De Oliveira; Christianne E.C. Rodrigues; Effect of the temperature on the kinetics of cocoa bean shell fat extraction using pressurized ethanol and evaluation of the lipid fraction and defatted meal. Industrial Crops and Products 2019, 130, 96-103, 10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.063.
  13. S. Martínez-Cervera; Ana Salvador; Begoña Mugureza; L. Moulay; Susana Fiszman; Cocoa fibre and its application as a fat replacer in chocolate muffins. LWT 2011, 44, 729-736, 10.1016/j.lwt.2010.06.035.
  14. Concha Collar; Cristina M. Rosell; Begoña Mugureza; L. Moulay; Breadmaking Performance and Keeping Behavior of Cocoa-soluble Fiber-enriched Wheat Breads. Food Science and Technology International 2009, 15, 79-87, 10.1177/1082013208102643.
  15. John Nsor-Atindana; Fang Zhong; Kebitsamang Joseph Mothibe; In vitro hypoglycemic and cholesterol lowering effects of dietary fiber prepared from cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) shells. Food & Function 2012, 3, 1044, 10.1039/c2fo30091e.
  16. Nicoletta Pellegrini; Monica Locatelli; Fabiano Travaglia; Matteo Bordiga; Cristiano Garino; Jean Daniel Coïsson; Marco Arlorio; Cocoa hulls polyphenols stabilized by microencapsulation as functional ingredient for bakery applications. Food Research International 2019, 115, 511-518, 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.10.004.
  17. Bernaert, H.; Ruysscher, I.D. Process, Use, and Product. U.S. Patent 2016135478A1, 27 January 2016.
  18. Bernaert, H.; Ruysscher, I.D. Process of Producing Cocoa Shell Powder. U.S. Patent 9,375,024B2, 26 June 2013.
  19. Lienda Handojo; Harry Triharyogi; Antonius Indarto; Cocoa bean shell waste as potential raw material for dietary fiber powder. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture 2019, 8, 485-491, 10.1007/s40093-019-0271-9.
  20. Rojo- Poveda; Barbosa- Pereira; Mateus- Reguengo; Marta Bertolino; Caroline Stévigny; Giuseppe Zeppa; Olga Rojo-Poveda; Letricia Barbosa-Pereira; Lívia Mateus Reguengo; And Giuseppe Zeppa; et al. Effects of Particle Size and Extraction Methods on Cocoa Bean Shell Functional Beverage. Nutrients 2019, 11, 867, 10.3390/nu11040867.
  21. Jin-Hee Choi; Nami Kim; Hae-Yeon Choi; Young Sil Han; Effect of Cacao Bean Husk Powder on the Quality Properties of Pork Sausages. food science of animal resources 2019, 39, 742-755, 10.5851/kosfa.2019.e62.
  22. Antun Jozinović; Jelena Panak Balentić; Đurđica Ačkar; Jurislav Babić; Biljana Pajin; Borislav Miličević; Sunčica Guberac; Anđela Vrdoljak; Drago Šubarić; Cocoa husk application in the enrichment of extruded snack products. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 2019, 43, e13866, 10.1111/jfpp.13866.
  23. Marina Venturini Copetti; Beatriz T. Iamanaka; Melanie A. Nester; Priscilla Efraim; Marta H. Taniwaki; Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cocoa by-products and determination of its reduction during chocolate manufacture. Food Chemistry 2013, 136, 100-104, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.07.093.
  24. Carlo Brera; F. Debegnach; B. De Santis; E. Iafrate; E. Pannunzi; C. Berdini; E. Prantera; E. Gregori; M. Miraglia; Ochratoxin A in cocoa and chocolate products from the Italian market: Occurrence and exposure assessment. Food Control 2011, 22, 1663-1667, 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.03.026.
  25. Marina Venturini Copetti; Beatriz T. Iamanaka; José Luiz Pereira; Daniel P. Lemes; Felipe Nakano; Marta H. Taniwaki; Determination of aflatoxins in by-products of industrial processing of cocoa beans. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 2012, 29, 972-978, 10.1080/19440049.2012.660657.
  26. Josep Serra Bonvehí; Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in Cocoa Products and Chocolate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2004, 52, 6347-6352, 10.1021/jf040153w.
  27. S Amézqueta; Elena González-Peñas; M Murillo; A López De Cerain; Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cocoa beans: Effect of shelling. Food Additives & Contaminants 2005, 22, 590-596, 10.1080/02652030500130160.
  28. A Assa; A Noor; M R Yunus; Misnawi; M N Djide; Heavy metal concentrations in cocoa beans (Theobroma cacaoL.) originating from EastLuwu, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2018, 979, 012011, 10.1088/1742-6596/979/1/012011.
  29. Charley W. Rankin; Jerome O Nriagu; Jugdeep K Aggarwal; Toyin A Arowolo; Kola Adebayo; A Russell Flegal; Lead contamination in cocoa and cocoa products: isotopic evidence of global contamination. Environmental Health Perspectives 2005, 113, 1344–1348.
  30. Sudhir Dahiya; Rupali Karpe; A.G. Hegde; R.M. Sharma; Lead, cadmium and nickel in chocolates and candies from suburban areas of Mumbai, India. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2005, 18, 517-522, 10.1016/j.jfca.2004.05.002.
  31. Aikpopodion, P.E.; Odule, A.; Osobamiro, O.C.; Oduwole, T.; Ademola, S.M. A survey of copper, lead, cadmium and zinc residues in cocoa beans obtained from selected plantations in Nigeria. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2013, 56, 88–98.
  32. Bartosz Kruszewski; Mieczysław Wiesław Obiedziński; Jolanta Kowalska; Nickel, cadmium and lead levels in raw cocoa and processed chocolate mass materials from three different manufacturers. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2018, 66, 127-135, 10.1016/j.jfca.2017.12.012.
  33. Nathalie Meunier; Jéro⁁me Laroulandie; J F Blais; Rajeshwar Dayal Tyagi; Lead Removal from Acidic Solutions by Sorption on Cocoa Shells: Effect of Some Parameters. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2003, 129, 693-698, 10.1061/(asce)0733-9372(2003)129:8(693).
  34. Nathalie Meunier; Jean-François Blais; Rajeshwar Dayal Tyagi; Removal of heavy metals from acid soil leachate using cocoa shells in a batch counter-current sorption process. Hydrometallurgy 2004, 73, 225-235, 10.1016/j.hydromet.2003.10.011.
  35. Scientific Committee on Food. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons—Occurrence in Foods, Dietary Exposure and Health Effects. Report No. SCF/CS/CNTM/PAH/29 Add1 Final. 4 December 2002. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/index_en.html (accessed on 27 February 2020).
  36. Ciecierska, M. Cocoa beans of different origins and varieties and their derived products contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Food Chem. 2020, 317, 126408.
  37. Weiwei Cheng; Guoqin Liu; Xuede Wang; Xinqi Liu; Bingge Liu; Formation of Benzo(a)pyrene in Sesame Seeds During the Roasting Process for Production of Sesame Seed Oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 2015, 92, 1725-1733, 10.1007/s11746-015-2734-0.
  38. Singh, S.G. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons formed during Roasting Process in Arabica Coffee Beans; Thapar University: Punjab, India, 2013.
  39. Misnawi, J. Effect of cocoa bean drying methods on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination in cocoa butter. Int. Food Res. J. 2012, 19, 1589–1594.
  40. Agus, B.A.P.; Hussain, N.; Selamat, J. Quantification of PAH4 in Roasted Cocoa Beans Using QuEChERS and Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Micro-extraction (DLLME) Coupled with HPLC-FLD. Food Chem. 2019, 125398.
  41. Da Silva do Nascimento, M.; da Silva, N.; da Silva, I.F.; da Silva, J.d.C.; Marques, É.R.; Barbosa Santos, A.R; Eteropathogens in cocoa pre-processing. Food Control 2010, 21, 408–411.
  42. Walter Peñaloza Izurieta; Evangelia Komitopoulou; Effect of moisture on salmonella spp. heat resistance in cocoa and hazelnut shells. Food Research International 2012, 45, 1087-1092, 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.09.024.
  43. Maristela Nascimento; Pamela Oliveira Pena; Daniela Merlo Brum; Fabiana Taminato Imazaki; Maria Luiza SantAnna Tucci; Priscilla Efraim; Behavior of Salmonella during fermentation, drying and storage of cocoa beans. International Journal of Food Microbiology 2013, 167, 363-368, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.10.003.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback