References

1. IDA; GWI DesalData. IDA Water Security Handbook 2019–2020; IDA and GWI DesalData: Topsfield, MA, USA, 2019; pp. 14–41.
2. Pitchard, H.D. Asia’s shrinking glaciers protect large populations from drought stress. Nature 2019, 569, 649–654.
3. Linares, R.V.; Li, Z.; Elimelech, M.; Amy, G.; Vrouwenvelder, H. Population Distribution and Water Scarcity. In Recent Developments in Forward Osmosis Processes; Linares, R.V., Li, Z., Elimelech, M., Amy, G., Vrouwenvelder, H., Eds.; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2017; pp. 3–13.
4. Liu, J.; Yang, H.; Gosling, S.N.; Kummu, M.; Flörke, M.; Pfister, S.; Hanasaki, N.; Wada, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zheng, C.; et al. Water scarcity assessments in the past, present, and future. Earth Future 2017, 5, 545–559.
5. Caparrós-Martínez, J.L.; Rueda-Lópe, N.; Milán-García, J.; Valenciano, J.P. Public policies for sustainability and water security: The case of Almeria (Spain). Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2020, 23, e01037.
6. Al-Saidi, M.; Saliba, S. Water, Energy and Food Supply Security in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries: A Risk Perspective. Water 2019, 11, 455.
7. Schewea, J.; Heinkea, J.; Gerten, D.; Haddeland, I.; Arnell, N.W.; Clark, D.B.; Dankers, R.; Eisner, S.; Fekete, B.M.; Colón-González, F.J.; et al. Multimodel assessment of water scarcity under climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 3245–3250.
8. Godart, P. Design and simulation of a heat-driven direct reverse osmosis device for seawater desalination powered by solar thermal energy. Appl. Energy 2020, 284, 116039.
9. Yasukawa, M.; Suzuki, T.; Higa, M. Salinity Gradient Process: Thermodynamics, Applications, and Future Prospects. In Membrane-Based Salinity Gradient Processes for Water Treatment and Power Generation, 1st ed.; Sarp, S., Hilal, N., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 3–56.
10. Mistry, K.H.; McGovern, R.K.; Thiel, G.P.; Summers, E.K.; Zubair, S.M.; Lienhard, J.H. Entropy generation analysis of desalination technologies. Entropy 2011, 13, 1829–1864.
11. Tanaka, Y.; Yasukawa, M.; Goda, S.; Sakurai, H.; Shibuya, M.; Takahashi, T.; Kishimoto, M.; Higa, M.; Matsuyama, H. Experimental and simulation studies of two types of 5-inch scale hollow fiber membrane modules for pressure-retarded osmosis. Desalination 2018, 447, 133–146.
12. Nassrullah, H.; Anis, S.F.; Hashaikeh, R.; Hilal, N. Energy for desalination: A state-of-the-art review. Desalination 2020, 491, 114569.
13. Kurihara, M.; Sakai, H.; Tanioka, A.; Tomioka, H. Role of pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) in the mega-ton water project. Desalin. Water Treat. 2016, 57, 26518–26528.
14. Kurihara, M.; Hanakawa, M. Mega-ton Water System: Japanese national research and development project on seawater desalination and wastewater reclamation. Desalination 2013, 308, 131–137.
15. Giwa, A.; Dufour, V.; Al Marzooqi, F.; Al Kaabi, M.; Hasan, S.W. Brine management methods: Recent innovations and current status. Desalination 2017, 407, 1–23.
16. Jones, M.; Qadir, M.; van Vliet, M.T.; Smakhtin, V.; Kang, S.M. The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 657, 1343–1356.
17. Eke, J.; Yusuf, A.; Giwa, A.; Sodiq, A. The global status of desalination: An assessment of current desalination technologies, plants and capacity. Desalination 2020, 495, 114633.
18. Missimer, T.M.; Maliva, R.G. Environmental issues in seawater reverse osmosis desalination: Intakes and Outfalls. Desalination 2018, 434, 198–215.
19. Schantz, A.B.; Xiong, B.; Dees, E.; Moore, D.R.; Yang, X.; Kumar, M. Emerging investigators series: Prospects and challenges for high-pressure reverse osmosis in minimizing concentrated waste streams. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 2018, 4, 894.
20. Semblante, G.U.; Lee, J.Z.; Lee, L.Y.; Ong, S.L.; Ng, H.Y. Brine pre-treatment technologies for zero liquid discharge system. Desalination 2018, 441, 96–111.
21. Vanoppen, M.; Stoffels, G.; Buffel, J.; Gusseme, B.D.; Verliefde, A.R.D. A hybrid IEX-RO process with brine recycling for increased RO recovery without chemical addition: A pilot-scale study. Desalination 2016, 394, 185–194.
22. Breton, E.J., Jr. Water and Ion Flow Through Imperfect Osmotic Membranes. In Research and Development Progress Report No. 16. Office of Saline Water; Washington, DC, USA, 1957; Available online: (accessed on 8 March 2021).
23. Shibuya, M.; Yasukawa, M.; Takahashi, T.; Miyoshi, T.; Higa, M.; Matsuyama, H. Effect of operating conditions on osmotic-driven membrane performances of cellulose triacetate forward osmosis hollow fiber membrane. Desalination 2015, 362, 34–42.
24. Shibuya, M.; Yasukawa, M.; Goda, S.; Sakurai, H.; Takahashi, T.; Higa, M.; Matsuyama, H. Experimental and theoretical study of a forward osmosis hollow fiber membrane module with a cross-wound configuration. J. Membr. Sci. 2016, 504, 10–19.
25. Ahmed, M.; Kumar, R.; Garudachari, B.; Thomas, J.P. Performance evaluation of a thermoresponsive polyelectrolyte draw solution in a pilot scale forward osmosis seawater desalination system. Desalination 2019, 452, 132–140.
26. Goda, S.; Sekino, M. Application of irreversible thermodynamic model to a hollow fiber forward osmosis module in sodium chloride aqueous solution system. Desalination 2020, 486, 114458.
27. Saito, K.; Irie, M.; Zaitsu, S.; Sakai, H.; Hayashi, H.; Tanioka, A. Power generation with salinity gradient by pressure retarded osmosis using concentrated brine from SWRO system and treated sewage as pure water. Desalin. Water Treat. 2012, 41, 114–121.
28. Kumano, A.; Marui, K.; Terashima, Y. Hollow fiber type PRO module and its characteristics. Desalination 2016, 389, 149–154.
29. Higa, M.; Shigefuji, D.; Shibuya, M.; Izumikawa, S.; Ikebe, Y.; Yasukawa, M.; Endo, N.; Tanioka, A. Experimental study of a hollow fiber membrane module in pressure-retarded osmosis: Module performance comparison with volumetric-based power outputs. Desalination 2017, 420, 45–53.
30. Yasukawa, M.; Shigefuji, D.; Shibuya, M.; Ikebe, Y.; Horie, R.; Higa, M. Effect of DS Concentration on the PRO Performance Using a 5-Inch Scale Cellulose Triacetate-Based Hollow Fiber Membrane Module. Membranes 2018, 8, 22.
31. Kishimoto, M.; Tanaka, Y.; Yasukawa, M.; Goda, S.; Higa, M.; Matsuyama, H. Optimization of Pressure-Retarded Osmosis with Hollow-Fiber Membrane Modules by Numerical Simulation. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2019, 58, 6687–6695.
32. Matsuyama, K.; Makabe, R.; Ueyama, T.; Sakai, H.; Saito, K.; Okumura, T.; Hayashi, H.; Tanioka, A. Power generation system based on pressure retarded osmosis with a commercially-available hollow fiber PRO membrane module using seawater and freshwater. Desalination 2021, 499, 114805.
33. Madsen, H.T.; Hansen, T.B.; Nakao, T.; Goda, S.; Søgaard, E.G. Combined geothermal heat and pressure retarded osmosis as a new green power system. Energy Convers. Manag. 2020, 226, 113504.
34. Togo, N.; Nakagawa, K.; Shintani, T.; Yoshioka, T.; Takahashi, T.; Kamio, E.; Matsuyama, H. Osmotically Assisted Reverse Osmosis Utilizing Hollow Fiber Membrane Module for Concentration Process. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2019, 58, 6721–6729.
35. Nakagawa, K.; Togo, N.; Takagi, R.; Shintani, T.; Yoshioka, T.; Kamio, E.; Matsuyama, H. Multistage osmotically assisted reverse osmosis process for concentrating solutions using hollow fiber membrane modules. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 2020, 162, 117–124.
36. Reid, C.E.; Breton, E.J. Water and ion flow across cellulosic membranes. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1959, 1, 133–143.
37. Kumano, A. Advances in Hollow-Fiber Reverse-Osmosis Membrane Modules in Seawater Desalination. In Advances in Water Desalination; Lior, N., Ed.; John Wiley and Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2012; pp. 309–375.
38. Kumano, A.; Fujiwara, N. Cellulose Triacetate Membranes for Reverse Osmosis. In Advanced Membrane Technology and Applications; Li, N.N., Fane, A.G., Ho, W.S.W., Matsuura, T., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2008; pp. 21–46.
39. Loeb, S.; Sourirajan, S. High Flow Porous Membranes for Separating Water from Saline Solutions. U.S. Patent 3,133,132, 12 May 1964.
40. Loeb, S. The Loeb-Sourirajan Membrane: How It Came About. In Synthetic Membranes; Turbak, A.F., Ed.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 1981; Volume 153, pp. 1–9.
41. Lee, K.P.; Arnot, T.C.; Mattia, D. A review of reverse osmosis membrane materials for desalination—Development to date and future potential. J. Membr. Sci. 2011, 370, 1–22.
42. Glater, J. The early history of reverse osmosis membrane development. Desalination 1998, 117, 297–309.
43. Belfort, G. Desalting Experience by Hyperfiltration (Reverse Osmosis) in the United States. In Synthetic Membranes Process: Fundamentals and Water Applications; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1984; pp. 221–280.
44. Staude, E. Desalting Experience by Hyperfiltration (Reverse Osmosis) in Europe and Japan. In Synthetic Membranes Process: Fundamentals and Water Applications; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1984; pp. 281–341.
45. Petersen, R.J. Membranes for Desalination. In Synthetic Membranes; Chenoweth, M.B., Ed.; MMI Press by Harwood Academic Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 1986; pp. 129–154.
46. Mclain, E.A.; Mahon, H.I. Permselective Hollow Fibers and Method of Making. U.S. Patent 3,423,491, 2 September 1964.
47. Manjikian, S. Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Semipermeable Membranes and Their Production. U.S. Patent 3,607,329, 22 April 1969.
48. Hoernschemeyer, D.L. Cellulose Acetate Blend Membranes. U.S. Patent 3,878,276, 24 May 1972.
49. Cannon, C.R.; Cantor, P.A. Mixed Esters of Cellulose. U.S. Patent Application No. 3,585,126, 15 June 1971.
50. Del, P.J. Supported Semipermeable Membranes and Process for Preparing Same. U.S. Patent 3,762,566, 3 August 1971.
51. Loeb, S. UCLA Dept. of Engineering Report 66-40; UCLA: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1966.
52. Loeb, S. UCLA Dept. of Engineering Report 62-41; UCLA: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1961.
53. Westmoreland, J.C. Spirally Wrapped Reverse Osmosis Membrane Cell. U.S. Patent 3,367,504, 6 February 1968.
54. Bray, D.T. Reverse Osmosis Purification Apparatus. U.S. Patent 3,417,870, 24 December 1968.
55. Mahon, H.I. Permeability Separatory Apparatus, Permeability Separatory Membrane Element, Method of Making the Same and Process Utilizing the Same. U.S. Patent 3,228,876, 19 September 1960.
56. Baker, R.W. Membrane Technology and Applications, 3rd ed.; John Wiley and Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2012; pp. 207–208.
57. Uemura, T.; Henmi, M. Thin-Film Composite Membranes for Reverse Osmosis. In Advanced Membrane Technology and Applications; Li, N.N., Fane, A.G., Ho, W.S.W., Matsuura, T., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2008; pp. 21–46.
58. Cadotte, J.E. Interfacially Synthesized Reverse Osmosis Membrane. U.S. Patent 4,277,344, 22 February 1979.
59. Dance, E.L.; Davis, T.E.; Mahon, E.I.; McLain, E.A.; Skiens, W.E.; Spano, J.O. Development of Cellulose Triacetate Hollow Fiber Reverse Osmosis Modules for Brackish Water Desalination; Report No. 763; U.S. Office of Saline Water Research and Development Progress: New York, NY, USA, 1971.
60. Ammons, R.D.; Mahon, H.I. Development of a One-Pass Hollow Fiber Seawater Desalination Module Having a Capacity of 2500–3000 gpd; Report No. 924; U.S. Office of Saline Water Research and Development Progress: Washington, DC, USA; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1974; Volume 6.
61. Ukai, T.; Nimura, Y.; Hamada, K.; Matsui, H. Development of one pass sea water reverse osmosis module, “HOLLOSEP”. Desalination 1980, 32, 169–178.
62. Kumano, A. Recent Trends in Water Desalination Technology by Reverse Osmosis. Sen I Gakkaishi 1992, 48, 70–76.
63. Badruzzaman, M.; Voutchkovn, N.; Weinrich, L.; Jacangelo, J.G. Selection of pretreatment technologies for seawater reverse osmosis plants: A review. Desalination 2019, 449, 78–91.
64. Anis, S.A.; Hashaiken, R.; Hilal, N. Reverse osmosis pretreatment technologies and future trends: A comprehensive review. Desalination 2019, 452, 159–195.
65. Bereschenko, L.A.; Heilig, G.H.J.; Nederlof, M.M.; van Loosdrecht, M.C.M.; Stams, A.J.M.; Euverink, G.J.W. Molecular Characterization of the Bacterial Communities in the Different Compartments of a Full-Scale Reverse-Osmosis Water Purification Plant. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74, 5297–5304.
66. Nguyen, T.P.N.; Jun, B.-M.; Kwon, Y.-N. The chlorination mechanism of integrally asymmetric cellulose triacetate (CTA)-based and thin film composite polyamide-based forward osmosis membrane. J. Membr. Sci. 2017, 523, 111–121.
67. Lim, S.; Tran, V.H.; Akther, N.; Phuntsho, S.; Shon, H.K. Defect-free outer-selective hollow fiber thin-film composite membranes for forward osmosis applications. J. Membr. Sci. 2019, 586, 281–291.
68. Do, V.T.; Tang, C.Y.; Reinhard, M.; Leckie, J.O. Effects of Chlorine Exposure Conditions on Physiochemical Properties and Performance of a Polyamide Membrane-Mechanisms and Implications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 13184–13192.
69. Ohya, H. An expression method of compaction effects on reverse osmosis membranes at high pressure operation. Desalination 1978, 26, 163–174.
70. Khairkar, S.R.; Pansare, A.V.; Shedge, A.A.; Chhatre, S.Y.; Suresh, A.K.; Chakrabarti, S.; Patil, V.R.; Nagarkar, A.A. Hydrophobic interpenetrating polyamide-PDMS membranes for desalination, pesticides removal and enhanced chlorine tolerance. Chemosphere 2020, 258, 127179.
71. Ortiz-Medina, J.; Inukai, S.; Araki, T.; Morelos-Gomez, A.; Cruz-Silva, R.; Takeuchi, K.; Noguchi, T.; Kawaguchi, T.; Terrones, M.; Endo, M. Robust water desalination membranes against degradation using high loads of carbon nanotubes. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 2748.
72. Saleem, H.; Zaidi, S.J. Nanoparticles in reverse osmosis membranes for desalination: A state of the art review. Desalination 2020, 475, 114171.
73. Chen, K.; Xiao, C.; Liu, H.; Li, G.; Meng, X. Structure design on reinforced cellulose triacetate composite membrane for reverse osmosis desalination process. Desalination 2018, 441, 35–43.