You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Mosquito-Borne Viruses and Non-Human Vertebrates: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Dean Liu and Version 1 by Oselyne Ong.

Mosquito-borne viruses are well recognized as a global public health burden amongst humans, but the effects on non-human vertebrates is rarely reported. 

  • mosquito vectors
  • arboviruses
  • disease reservoirs
  • animal diseases
  • animal distribution

1. Mosquitoes: The Link between Vertebrate Host and Disease

There are more than 300 species of mosquitoes identified in Australia and almost 100 of these are capable of transmitting pathogens to wildlife and domestic animals (see 

Table 1

), of which 

Aedes

, 

Culex

, and 

Anopheles species are the most common genera of vectors [7]. Feeding preferences by these species are highly variable with some species (such as 

 species are the most common genera of vectors [1]. Feeding preferences by these species are highly variable with some species (such as 

Aedes aegypti

) reported to have host specific feeding patterns, while other species (such as 

Aedes vigilax) exhibit more generalist feeding behaviors [8], both of which can play an important role as bridging vectors [9,10]. Individual feeding patterns are often dependent on host abundance and availability, both of which are strongly linked to habitat identity, and which can change annually and seasonally depending on the biology and ecology of individual host species (see [11] for a review). To date, vertebrate blood-meal hosts have been identified for a variety of taxonomic groups, including Carnivora (e.g., cats, dogs, and foxes), Aves (birds), Diprotodontia (e.g., possums and macropods), Artiodactyla (e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats), and Equidae (horses), with individual vector species displaying a trade-off between host preference and host availability [11]. For example, in rural Queensland, Australia, bloodmeal origins for 

) exhibit more generalist feeding behaviors [2], both of which can play an important role as bridging vectors [3][4]. Individual feeding patterns are often dependent on host abundance and availability, both of which are strongly linked to habitat identity, and which can change annually and seasonally depending on the biology and ecology of individual host species (see [5] for a review). To date, vertebrate blood-meal hosts have been identified for a variety of taxonomic groups, including Carnivora (e.g., cats, dogs, and foxes), Aves (birds), Diprotodontia (e.g., possums and macropods), Artiodactyla (e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats), and Equidae (horses), with individual vector species displaying a trade-off between host preference and host availability [5]. For example, in rural Queensland, Australia, bloodmeal origins for 

Culex annulirostris, were dominated by cattle [12], but in Sydney, a highly urbanized city, 

, were dominated by cattle [6], but in Sydney, a highly urbanized city, 

Cx. annulirostris bloodmeal origins were mostly from birds, rodents and rabbits [8]. Thus, the ecologies of Australian mosquito-borne viruses can be driven by complex interactions between vector species, host availability, and host preference, which may be a derivative of habitat or climate. This will ultimately drive the spread of pathogens.

 bloodmeal origins were mostly from birds, rodents and rabbits [2]. Thus, the ecologies of Australian mosquito-borne viruses can be driven by complex interactions between vector species, host availability, and host preference, which may be a derivative of habitat or climate. This will ultimately drive the spread of pathogens.

Table 1.

 A summary of pathogen, pathogen distribution, mosquito vectors, and symptomatic 

a

 and asymptomatic 

b

 host distribution in Australia. Dengue and Rift Valley fever are not listed as there have been no known non-human vertebrate hosts in Australia.

Pathogen Pathogen Distribution in Australia Mosquito Vectors Asymptomatic Hosts of Pathogen in Australia Symptomatic Hosts of Pathogen in Australia
Ross River virus (RRV) All of Australia [13][7] Aedes and Culex mosquitoes, particularly Aedes vigilax, Aedes camptohynchus, and Culex annulirostris [14][8] Marsupials: wallabies, wallaroos [15][9], common brushtail possums [16][10], eastern grey kangaroos [17][11], western grey kangaroos [18][12]

Australian birds: little corella, magpie larks, Australian brown flycatcher, masked finch [19,20][13][14]

Wild eutherian mammals: rodents, Pteropus spp. [20][14]

Domestic mammals: cattle, dogs [20][14], cats [21][15]		 Domestic mammals: horses [20,22][14][16]
Barmah Forest virus (BFV) All of Australia [23][17] Culex annuliristris, Aedes normanensis, Aedes vigilax and Aedes procax [24][18] Marsupials: eastern grey kangaroo [25][19], koalas [25][19] and brushtail possums [21][15].

Wild eutherian mammals: Australian bush rats and swamp rats [26][20]

Domestic mammals: cats, dogs, horses [27][21]		  
Sindbis virus (SINV) Most of Australia (excluding Tasmania) [28][22] Culex annulirostris, Aedes normanensis, Aedes camptorhynchus [29][23], Aedes pseudonormanensis [30][24] Marsupials: chudditch [31][25]

Wild eutherian mammals: European rabbits [31][25]

Domestic mammals: horses [31][25]

Birds: Emus [31][25]		  
Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) Western Australia [32][26], Northern Territory [33][27], New South Wales, and Victoria [34][28] Culex annulirostris [35][29], Culex sitiens and other Culicine mosquitoes [36][30] Marsupials: eastern grey kangaroos [37][31], western grey kangaroos, agile wallabies [38][32]

Australian birds: galahs, sulphur-crested cockatoos [38][32], chickens [39][33]

Wild eutherian mammals: rabbits [37][31], wild mice [38][32]

Domestic mammals: dogs, sheep, pigs, cattle [37][31]

Water birds: rufous night herons [34][28], Pacific black ducks [38][32]		 Domestic mammals: horses [22,40,41][16][34][35]
West Nile virus (WNV) All of Australia [42,43][36][37] Mainly isolated from Culex annulirostris [44][38]. Other Culex species, Aedes species and Anopheles amictus can also transmit the virus [45,46][39][40] Marsupials: western grey kangaroos, agile wallabies [37][31]

Australian bird: Australian white ibis [47][41]

Ardeid birds: herons, egrets [48][42]

Introduced bird: house sparrow [49][43].		 Wild eutherian mammals: rabbits [50,51][44][45]

Domestic mammals: horses [22,42][16][36], cats (mild) [52][46]
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) Torres Strait (incursion) [53][47], North Peninsula Area and mainland [54][48] Culex annulirostris [53][47]. Ardeid birds: herons, egrets [55,[56,4957]][50][51]

Domestic mammals: pigs [58][52], horses [59][53]		 Wild eutherian mammals: Frugivorous bats i.e., black flying fox [60][54]

Other birds: pigeons, sparrows, ducks, chickens [60][54]
Kokobera (KOKV) and related viruses Queensland, New South Wales, Northern Territory, Western Australia, and Papua New Guinea [61,62][55][56] Aedes species including Aedes aculeatus, Aedes alternas, Aedes notoscriptus, Aedes procax, Aedes vigilax and Anopheles annulipes [63][57] Marsupials: mainly kangaroos and wallabies [17,64][11][58].

Domestic mammals: cattle [26][20]		 Domestic mammals: horses [64,65][58][59]

It is unknown whether horses are affected by Kokobera and related viruses, as it could be associated with a known equine disease.
Gan Gan (GGV) and Trubanaman viruses (TRUV) Queensland, New South Wales, and Western Australia [66][60] Aedes vigilax (GGV) [67][61], Culex annulirostris (GGV and TRUV) [62,68][56][62], Anopheles annulipes (TRUV) [66][60] and Anopheles meraukensis [69][63] Marsupials: eastern grey kangaroos (GGV, TRUV), red-necked wallaby (GGV, TRUV) [26][20], western grey kangaroos (TRUV) [70][64]

Wild eutherian mammals: Australian bush rat (GGV) [26][20], feral pigs (TRUV), rabbits (TRUV), foxes (TRUV), quokkas (TRUV) [70][64]

Domestic mammals: sheep (GGV), horses (GGV, TRUV), cattle (GGV) [26,70][20][64]		  
a A asymptomatic host would be a reservoir host species that does not experience the symptoms of disease but is able to produce sufficient pathogen levels to infect mosquitoes that blood-feed on that animal. b A symptomatic host would be a non-reservoir host species that show symptoms of the disease and also produces sufficient pathogen levels to infect mosquitoes that blood-feed on that animal.
 

2. Uniquely Australian Vertebrate Hosts

2. Uniquely Australian Vertebrate Hosts

Australia provides a unique opportunity to investigate the transmission of viruses between vertebrates and mosquitoes. The long geographic isolation of Australia has led to the co-evolution of viruses, mosquitoes, and endemic vertebrate hosts, which offer unique insights into immunology and physiology. Over the last 200 years, Australia has also experienced the introduction of viruses and domestic species, and an expansion of urbanization, all of which have shifted the dynamics of disease and ecology among native species. This crockpot of co-evolution and introductions mean that Australian fauna have highly heterogenic roles for transmitting different viruses within the community (

Australia provides a unique opportunity to investigate the transmission of viruses between vertebrates and mosquitoes. The long geographic isolation of Australia has led to the co-evolution of viruses, mosquitoes, and endemic vertebrate hosts, which offer unique insights into immunology and physiology. Over the last 200 years, Australia has also experienced the introduction of viruses and domestic species, and an expansion of urbanization, all of which have shifted the dynamics of disease and ecology among native species. This crockpot of co-evolution and introductions mean that Australian fauna have highly heterogenic roles for transmitting different viruses within the community (

Figure 1

), or are affected by viruses in different ways (i.e., asymptomatically vs. symptomatically; 

Table 1

).

Viruses 13 00265 g001 550
Figure 1.

 Relationship between Australian wildlife, mosquitoes, and humans. Often mosquito-borne diseases are often spread from human to human via the bite of a mosquito; however, consideration of Australian wildlife is important as they are often hosts for these pathogens. There are also many factors that can determine the spread of mosquito-borne disease, including the change in wildlife distribution, which should be considered when developing strategies to minimize the spread of disease.

Marsupials

There are more than 300 extant marsupial species globally, of which close to 70% occur on the Australian continent (the mainland, Tasmania, New Guinea, and nearby islands), representing the most diverse extant marsupial radiation [71]. Many species exhibit unique physiological characteristics, such as adaptations to specific climatic envelopes, which have allowed them to succeed in even the harshest of Australian environments. However, immunological characteristics of marsupials may increase their susceptibility to infection for mosquito-borne viruses. When compared to eutherian mammals, neonatal marsupials are born without histological mature immune tissues [72,73] and are therefore unable to mount specific immune responses and are presumably highly reliant on maternal and innate immune strategies. Furthermore, some studies have reported marsupial immune systems are slower to mount some specific immune responses and occur at lower levels than those mounted by eutherian species [74,75]. However, the impact of such differences on disease susceptibility are poorly understood and the many similarities between eutherian and marsupial immune systems [76] cannot be overlooked (

There are more than 300 extant marsupial species globally, of which close to 70% occur on the Australian continent (the mainland, Tasmania, New Guinea, and nearby islands), representing the most diverse extant marsupial radiation [65]. Many species exhibit unique physiological characteristics, such as adaptations to specific climatic envelopes, which have allowed them to succeed in even the harshest of Australian environments. However, immunological characteristics of marsupials may increase their susceptibility to infection for mosquito-borne viruses. When compared to eutherian mammals, neonatal marsupials are born without histological mature immune tissues [66][67] and are therefore unable to mount specific immune responses and are presumably highly reliant on maternal and innate immune strategies. Furthermore, some studies have reported marsupial immune systems are slower to mount some specific immune responses and occur at lower levels than those mounted by eutherian species [68][69]. However, the impact of such differences on disease susceptibility are poorly understood and the many similarities between eutherian and marsupial immune systems [70] cannot be overlooked (

Figure 1

).

The immediate threat of land use and climate change on the survival of many Australian marsupial species highlights a need to better understand the impacts disease on marsupial health and reproductive fitness. Additionally, we need to consider the ecological impacts of exotic mosquito introductions and range expansions on native species. The proliferation of global trade and travel makes the introduction exotic mosquito species highly likely (see [77,78] for reviews), whereas climate change is already changing native species distributions [3].

The immediate threat of land use and climate change on the survival of many Australian marsupial species highlights a need to better understand the impacts disease on marsupial health and reproductive fitness. Additionally, we need to consider the ecological impacts of exotic mosquito introductions and range expansions on native species. The proliferation of global trade and travel makes the introduction exotic mosquito species highly likely (see [71][72] for reviews), whereas climate change is already changing native species distributions [73].

 

3. A Changing Australia and Its Consequences

3. A Changing Australia and Its Consequences

The infection, amplification and transmission of the pathogens mentioned are often affected by environmental and climatic change (see [157] for a review). A study collating 19 articles concerning the impact of climate change on RRV outbreaks demonstrated that the complex ecology, interactions between social and environmental factors, and climate change and socioeconomic development needs to be considered when trying to understand the ecology of RRV and prevent/reduce viral transmission [158]. Climate change can influence mosquito and wildlife distribution directly and/or indirectly by changing behaviors or movements. For example, while rainfall is predicted to decrease in certain areas of Australia, sea levels are predicted to increase which can potentially create another source of water for mosquito breeding [158]. This potential environmental change should be considered particularly for viruses that can be transmitted by various mosquito species. While the population of some mosquito species will decrease, others may consequentially thrive. Additionally, humans respond to climate change by altering their surroundings, which could influence the survival of wildlife and distribution of mosquito species depending on their ability to adapt. Human land-use change is one of the primary drivers of a range of infectious disease outbreaks and modifiers of the transmission of endemic infections [159]. Anthropophilic mosquito species such as 

The infection, amplification and transmission of the pathogens mentioned are often affected by environmental and climatic change (see [74] for a review). A study collating 19 articles concerning the impact of climate change on RRV outbreaks demonstrated that the complex ecology, interactions between social and environmental factors, and climate change and socioeconomic development needs to be considered when trying to understand the ecology of RRV and prevent/reduce viral transmission [75]. Climate change can influence mosquito and wildlife distribution directly and/or indirectly by changing behaviors or movements. For example, while rainfall is predicted to decrease in certain areas of Australia, sea levels are predicted to increase which can potentially create another source of water for mosquito breeding [75]. This potential environmental change should be considered particularly for viruses that can be transmitted by various mosquito species. While the population of some mosquito species will decrease, others may consequentially thrive. Additionally, humans respond to climate change by altering their surroundings, which could influence the survival of wildlife and distribution of mosquito species depending on their ability to adapt. Human land-use change is one of the primary drivers of a range of infectious disease outbreaks and modifiers of the transmission of endemic infections [76]. Anthropophilic mosquito species such as 

Aedes aegypti often increase in response to urbanization, particularly taking advantage of man-made objects and preferentially feeding on human hosts [160].

 often increase in response to urbanization, particularly taking advantage of man-made objects and preferentially feeding on human hosts [77].

Australia also has one of the highest extinction rates of mammalian fauna in the world [161,162]. The surviving Australian species are currently threatened by competition and predation from a range of introduced mammalian species, the low levels of conservation funding compared to other countries and the effects of climate change. The problem with losing biodiversity in Australia is that it can result in the loss of a “dilution effect”, which predicts that high host species richness can lower pathogen transmission [163]. This particularly applies to vectors that feed on multiple host species varying in their competence for a particular pathogen. For example, lower incidence of human WNV and Lyme disease has been observed in areas of the United States with greater host diversity [164,165]. Thus, continued population decline, and loss of species represents a significant public health threat in Australia.

Australia also has one of the highest extinction rates of mammalian fauna in the world [78][79]. The surviving Australian species are currently threatened by competition and predation from a range of introduced mammalian species, the low levels of conservation funding compared to other countries and the effects of climate change. The problem with losing biodiversity in Australia is that it can result in the loss of a “dilution effect”, which predicts that high host species richness can lower pathogen transmission [80]. This particularly applies to vectors that feed on multiple host species varying in their competence for a particular pathogen. For example, lower incidence of human WNV and Lyme disease has been observed in areas of the United States with greater host diversity [81][82]. Thus, continued population decline, and loss of species represents a significant public health threat in Australia.

There is also concern for the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases between countries. Other than migrating animal reservoirs such as birds and bats, increased human movements are now influencing mosquito and mosquito-borne disease distribution. Many mosquito species have been found to survive long-distance flights, including 

Anopheles mosquito species which transmits malaria [137,166]. Global travel and trade also enables the establishment of exotic zoonotic pathogens due to the availability of suitable vectors and hosts in many different countries [167]. It is therefore important to discuss the potential effects of such changes in Australia, particularly for future disease management purposes.

 mosquito species which transmits malaria [83][84]. Global travel and trade also enables the establishment of exotic zoonotic pathogens due to the availability of suitable vectors and hosts in many different countries [85]. It is therefore important to discuss the potential effects of such changes in Australia, particularly for future disease management purposes.

3.1. Climate and Its Significance to Australia’s Unique Vertebrate Communities

Climatically, higher temperatures have swept the whole of Australia and have created a dry landscape that is prone to bushfires. Bushfires have occurred in areas unaccustomed to fires, and are predicted to be more severe and frequent in the future [168]. Unexpected fires cause stress on wildlife, triggering immunosuppression, which increases the chances of infectious diseases [169]. Most recently in 2019, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Victoria experienced intense bushfires [170], and undoubtedly have led to a decrease in wildlife populations [171]. Previous intense bushfires have caused devastating impacts on various marsupials including the koala [172], quokka [173], and possums [174].

Climatically, higher temperatures have swept the whole of Australia and have created a dry landscape that is prone to bushfires. Bushfires have occurred in areas unaccustomed to fires, and are predicted to be more severe and frequent in the future [86]. Unexpected fires cause stress on wildlife, triggering immunosuppression, which increases the chances of infectious diseases [87]. Most recently in 2019, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Victoria experienced intense bushfires [88], and undoubtedly have led to a decrease in wildlife populations [89]. Previous intense bushfires have caused devastating impacts on various marsupials including the koala [90], quokka [91], and possums [92].

Drought is a long term trend that is a natural part of the Australian hydroclimate; however, in addition to natural drought, the continuously changing agriculture and infrastructure landscape and societal context leads to a limited time to learn, adapt and prepare for droughts (see [175] for a review). While it is true that egg laying by mosquitoes decline during droughts, some mosquito species are able to retain their eggs for extended periods allowing them to search out remnant water sources during prolonged periods of drought [176]. Drought conditions may also increase the vector competence of 

Drought is a long term trend that is a natural part of the Australian hydroclimate; however, in addition to natural drought, the continuously changing agriculture and infrastructure landscape and societal context leads to a limited time to learn, adapt and prepare for droughts (see [93] for a review). While it is true that egg laying by mosquitoes decline during droughts, some mosquito species are able to retain their eggs for extended periods allowing them to search out remnant water sources during prolonged periods of drought [94]. Drought conditions may also increase the vector competence of 

Cx. quinquefasciatus for WNV by altering the immune response against the virus [177]. Increased temperatures associated with drought may also extend the length of disease transmission by increasing the normal seasonal activity of major vector species. For example in urban environments, 

 for WNV by altering the immune response against the virus [95]. Increased temperatures associated with drought may also extend the length of disease transmission by increasing the normal seasonal activity of major vector species. For example in urban environments, 

Culex mosquitoes have been shown to breed earlier and extend their breeding season due to an increase in environmental temperatures [178]. Drought also leads to humans storing more water containers around houses, leading to increased mosquito breeding and disease outbreaks, particularly diseases associated with container-inhabiting species like dengue, chikungunya, and Zika [179,180].

 mosquitoes have been shown to breed earlier and extend their breeding season due to an increase in environmental temperatures [96]. Drought also leads to humans storing more water containers around houses, leading to increased mosquito breeding and disease outbreaks, particularly diseases associated with container-inhabiting species like dengue, chikungunya, and Zika [97][98].

Increased drought will also likely affect the abundance and distribution of competent vector species. In Australia, repeated drought events have decreased the survival and reproductive fitness of some smaller marsupials. After experiencing drought, the female agile antechinus (

Antechinus agilis) survival and number of young per litter decreased and some females failed to give birth [181]. The brush-tailed phascogale (

) survival and number of young per litter decreased and some females failed to give birth [99]. The brush-tailed phascogale (

Phascogale tapoatafa) delayed births by increasing period of sperm storage beyond the drought and while beneficial, would decrease populations if the drought was long-term [182]. Bigger marsupials such as kangaroos change their distribution depending on drought and rainfall, with red kangaroo (

) delayed births by increasing period of sperm storage beyond the drought and while beneficial, would decrease populations if the drought was long-term [100]. Bigger marsupials such as kangaroos change their distribution depending on drought and rainfall, with red kangaroo (

Macropus rufus) populations moving long distances and aggregating at areas with a higher quality food supply and water [183]. Higher temperatures also lead to heat stress, which coincides with larger admissions of Australian birds and marsupials into veterinary clinics [184]. It is also important to mention that some Australian animals have a proven ability to cope with higher temperatures, however many also suffer from heat stress [185].

) populations moving long distances and aggregating at areas with a higher quality food supply and water [101]. Higher temperatures also lead to heat stress, which coincides with larger admissions of Australian birds and marsupials into veterinary clinics [102]. It is also important to mention that some Australian animals have a proven ability to cope with higher temperatures, however many also suffer from heat stress [103].

3.2. Climate and Its Significance to Mosquitoes

Climatic factors influence mosquito breeding and disease transmission [9]. The Australian continent has increased in temperature by 0.9 °C between 1910 to 2011, which is higher than the global temperature increase of 0.7 °C [186]. Predicted climate change in Australia will likely increase the distribution of Australian vector-borne diseases such as RRV [187]. Disease distribution also relies on the type of vector and its efficiency in spreading disease. For example, the 

Climatic factors influence mosquito breeding and disease transmission [3]. The Australian continent has increased in temperature by 0.9 °C between 1910 to 2011, which is higher than the global temperature increase of 0.7 °C [104]. Predicted climate change in Australia will likely increase the distribution of Australian vector-borne diseases such as RRV [105]. Disease distribution also relies on the type of vector and its efficiency in spreading disease. For example, the 

Ae. aegypti population in Australia migrated from Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales to Queensland, which led to repeated outbreaks of dengue [188]. Thus, the spread of disease will ultimately rely upon the distribution of suitable vector species. The distribution of the principal vectors of dengue, malaria, and other global vector-borne diseases are projected to increase considerably under current climate change scenarios as warming temperatures will allow them to spread to areas previously unsuitable for survival [189,190,191]. If correct, such increases will surely result in the spread of disease to previously uninfected areas. Although transmission of vector-borne diseases can be limited by seasonal temperature change in temperate environments [192], many mosquito species have proven highly adaptable to survive in areas of lower humidity [193] and even in areas that under winter [194].

 population in Australia migrated from Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales to Queensland, which led to repeated outbreaks of dengue [106]. Thus, the spread of disease will ultimately rely upon the distribution of suitable vector species. The distribution of the principal vectors of dengue, malaria, and other global vector-borne diseases are projected to increase considerably under current climate change scenarios as warming temperatures will allow them to spread to areas previously unsuitable for survival [107][108][109]. If correct, such increases will surely result in the spread of disease to previously uninfected areas. Although transmission of vector-borne diseases can be limited by seasonal temperature change in temperate environments [110], many mosquito species have proven highly adaptable to survive in areas of lower humidity [111] and even in areas that under winter [112].

Rising sea levels in response to climate change will dramatically change shoreline hydrology, causing marshes and seagrass beds to migrate landward, and will push salinity up the estuary [195]. The landward expansion of saline habitat may increase the risk of vector-borne disease outbreaks in many regions of the world by increasing the distribution of salt-associated mosquito species [196]. In Australia, the major salt marsh mosquitoes 

Rising sea levels in response to climate change will dramatically change shoreline hydrology, causing marshes and seagrass beds to migrate landward, and will push salinity up the estuary [113]. The landward expansion of saline habitat may increase the risk of vector-borne disease outbreaks in many regions of the world by increasing the distribution of salt-associated mosquito species [114]. In Australia, the major salt marsh mosquitoes 

Ae. vigilax

 and 

Ae. camptorhynchus are important vectors of RRV and BFV [16] and any increase in their distributions represents a significant public health threat [197]. In addition to increased disease risk, the landward expansion of saline environments will increase the already extreme biting nuisance potential of these species [198,199] decreasing the quality of life in may coastal areas.

 are important vectors of RRV and BFV [10] and any increase in their distributions represents a significant public health threat [115]. In addition to increased disease risk, the landward expansion of saline environments will increase the already extreme biting nuisance potential of these species [116][117] decreasing the quality of life in may coastal areas.

3.3. Urbanization and Habitat Fragmentation

Ecological change resulting from land-use modification often leads to the transmission of infectious diseases from wild animals to humans [200], and Australia is no exception. Vector-borne disease outbreaks from Australian wildlife almost always involve the installation of wetlands, encroachment of residential developments on reclaimed coastal wetlands or remote locations and deforestation (see [201] for a review). Although urbanization has led to the decline of certain marsupial populations due to decreased habitat [202,203], the impacts of such reductions on endemic arboviruses is not currently known.

Ecological change resulting from land-use modification often leads to the transmission of infectious diseases from wild animals to humans [118], and Australia is no exception. Vector-borne disease outbreaks from Australian wildlife almost always involve the installation of wetlands, encroachment of residential developments on reclaimed coastal wetlands or remote locations and deforestation (see [119] for a review). Although urbanization has led to the decline of certain marsupial populations due to decreased habitat [120][121], the impacts of such reductions on endemic arboviruses is not currently known.

Deforestation also leads to changes in wildlife movements, either away from the development, or adapting to human settlement. Whereas, urbanization decreases host species richness, as only some are capable of adaptation. Marsupials such as koalas have been historically and significantly affected by changing landscapes. As koalas are specialized feeders of predominantly 

Eucalyptus

 and 

Corymbia species, their diet also varies within regional areas due to different soil characteristics, tree structures, leaf water, and chemical content [204,205], which makes it difficult for koalas to adapt with the cumulative threats from environmental and landscape changes. They are also threatened by disease (i.e., chlamydial infections and koala retrovirus) and stress from habitat fragmentation or clearing, is expected to result in population decline (see [206] for a review). Some koala populations persist in urban landscapes where resources are available; however, patchy resources also increase their risk of death [207]. Reduced nutritional and population health likely compromise immunological fitness [208] and enhance the potential of some koala species to act as reservoirs or reduce the removal of certain pathogens from a host.

 species, their diet also varies within regional areas due to different soil characteristics, tree structures, leaf water, and chemical content [122][123], which makes it difficult for koalas to adapt with the cumulative threats from environmental and landscape changes. They are also threatened by disease (i.e., chlamydial infections and koala retrovirus) and stress from habitat fragmentation or clearing, is expected to result in population decline (see [124] for a review). Some koala populations persist in urban landscapes where resources are available; however, patchy resources also increase their risk of death [125]. Reduced nutritional and population health likely compromise immunological fitness [126] and enhance the potential of some koala species to act as reservoirs or reduce the removal of certain pathogens from a host.

Even marsupials that are found in high densities in urban landscapes have been affected by urbanization and human population growth. The eastern grey kangaroo declined in overall population by 42% in south east Queensland, with a further decline anticipated with the increase of humans [202]. Additionally, land clearing and timber harvesting have also had an impact on the structure and distribution of various marsupial species because of the change in predation and food availability. For example, eastern grey kangaroos prefer the relatively open foraging sites for grazing and swamp wallabies prefer dense vegetation sites for feeding, suggesting that there will be changes of marsupial distribution depending on specific preferences of the species (see [209] for a review). Koalas from south east Queensland, Australia are more exposed to major RRV mosquito vector, 

Even marsupials that are found in high densities in urban landscapes have been affected by urbanization and human population growth. The eastern grey kangaroo declined in overall population by 42% in south east Queensland, with a further decline anticipated with the increase of humans [120]. Additionally, land clearing and timber harvesting have also had an impact on the structure and distribution of various marsupial species because of the change in predation and food availability. For example, eastern grey kangaroos prefer the relatively open foraging sites for grazing and swamp wallabies prefer dense vegetation sites for feeding, suggesting that there will be changes of marsupial distribution depending on specific preferences of the species (see [127] for a review). Koalas from south east Queensland, Australia are more exposed to major RRV mosquito vector, 

Cx. annulirostris, because of their confinement to edges of permanent wetlands that are not suitable for urban development [89]. However, while some Australian wildlife species are struggling to adapt to rapid environmental and climatic change, some are proliferating. Possums, for example, have been seen thriving in urban environments as they are more tolerant of disturbances compared to other marsupials [203,210]. While this is good for the maintenance of the possum population, it is also suspected that they might cause disease outbreaks in urban areas due to the lack of biodiversity and the close proximity to humans or domestic animals [211].
 
Reference (Editors will rearrange the references after the entry is submitted)
  1. Gubler, D.J. Human arbovirus infections worldwide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2001, 951, 13–24.
  2. Russell, R.C. Mosquito-borne disease and climate change in Australia: Time for a reality check. Aust. J. Entomol. 2009, 48, 1–7.
  3. Kraemer, M.U.; Sinka, M.E.; Duda, K.A.; Mylne, A.Q.; Shearer, F.M.; Barker, C.M.; Moore, C.G.; Carvalho, R.G.; Coelho, G.E.; Van Bortel, W. The global distribution of the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus. eLife 2015, 4, e08347.
  4. Canyon, D.; Speare, R.; Naumann, I.; Winkel, K. Environmental and economic costs of invertebrate invasions in Australia. In Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Cost of Alien Plant, Animal and Microbe Species; Pimental, D., Ed.; CRC Press: London, UK, 2002.
  5. Mwebaze, P.; Bennett, J.; Beebe, N.W.; Devine, G.J.; De Barro, P. Economic valuation of the threat posed by the establishment of the Asian Tiger Mosquito in Australia. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2018, 71, 357–379.
  6. Mackenzie, J.S.; Poidinger, M.; Lindsay, M.D.; Hall, R.A.; Sammels, L.M. Molecular epidemiology and evolution of mosquito-borne flaviviruses and alphaviruses enzootic in Australia. In Molecular Evolution of Viruses—Past and Present; Becker, Y., Ed.; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 1996; pp. 153–165.
  7. Webb, C.; Doggett, S.; Russell, R. A Guide to Mosquitoes of Australia; CSIRO Publishing: Canberra, Australia, 2016.
  8. Jansen, C.C.; Webb, C.E.; Graham, G.C.; Craig, S.B.; Zborowski, P.; Ritchie, S.A.; Russell, R.C.; Van den Hurk, A.F. Blood sources of mosquitoes collected from urban and peri-urban environments in eastern Australia with species-specific molecular analysis of avian blood meals. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81, 849–857.
  9. Reiter, P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 141.
  10. Stephenson, E.B.; Murphy, A.K.; Jansen, C.C.; Peel, A.J.; McCallum, H. Interpreting mosquito feeding patterns in Australia through an ecological lens: An analysis of blood meal studies. Parasit. Vectors 2019, 12, 156.
  11. Takken, W.; Verhulst, N.O. Host preferences of blood-feeding mosquitoes. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2013, 58, 433–453.
  12. Gyawali, N.; Taylor-Robinson, A.W.; Bradbury, R.S.; Huggins, D.W.; Hugo, L.E.; Lowry, K.; Aaskov, J.G. Identification of the source of blood meals in mosquitoes collected from north-eastern Australia. Parasit. Vectors 2019, 12, 198.
  13. Russell, R.C.; Dwyer, D.E. Arboviruses associated with human disease in Australia. Microbes Infect. 2000, 2, 1693–1704.
  14. Flies, E.J.; Lau, C.L.; Carver, S.; Weinstein, P. Another Emerging Mosquito-Borne Disease? Endemic Ross River Virus Transmission in the Absence of Marsupial Reservoirs. Bioscience 2018, 68, 288–293.
  15. Old, J.M.; Deane, E.M. Antibodies to the Ross River virus in captive marsupials in urban areas of eastern New South Wales, Australia. J. Wildl. Dis. 2005, 41, 611–614.
  16. Boyd, A.M.; Hall, R.A.; Gemmell, R.T.; Kay, B.H. Experimental infection of Australian brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula (Phalangeridae: Marsupialia), with Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses by use of a natural mosquito vector system. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2001, 65, 777–782.
  17. Doherty, R.; Standfast, H.; Domrow, R.; Wetters, E.; Whitehead, R.; Carley, J. Studies of the epidemiology of arthropod-borne virus infections at Mitchell River Mission, Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland IV. Arbovirus infections of mosquitoes and mammals, 1967–1969. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1971, 65, 504–513.
  18. Potter, A.; Johansen, C.A.; Fenwick, S.; Reid, S.A.; Lindsay, M.D. The seroprevalence and factors associated with Ross River virus infection in western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) in Western Australia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2014, 14, 740–745.
  19. Russell, R.C. Ross River virus: Ecology and distribution. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2002, 47, 1–31.
  20. Stephenson, E.B.; Peel, A.J.; Reid, S.A.; Jansen, C.C.; McCallum, H. The non-human reservoirs of Ross River virus: A systematic review of the evidence. Parasit. Vectors 2018, 11, 188.
  21. Kay, B.H.; Boyd, A.M.; Ryan, P.A.; Hall, R.A. Mosquito feeding patterns and natural infection of vertebrates with Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses in Brisbane, Australia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 76, 417–423.
  22. Roche, S.; Wicks, R.; Garner, M.; East, I.; Paskin, R.; Moloney, B.; Carr, M.; Kirkland, P. Descriptive overview of the 2011 epidemic of arboviral disease in horses in Australia. Aust. Vet. J. 2013, 91, 5–13.
  23. National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System. Available online: http://www9.health.gov.au/cda/source/cda-index.cfm (accessed on 30 January 2021).
  24. Kay, B.H.; Ryan, P.A. Vector Competence of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from Maroochy Shire, Australia, for Barmah Forest Virus. J. Med. Entomol. 1999, 36, 856–860.
  25. Aldred, J.; Campbell, J.; Mitchell, G.; Davis, G.; Elliott, J. Involvement of Wildlife in the Natural Cycle of Ross River and Barmah Forest Viruses. In Proceedings of the Wildlife Disease Association Meeting, Mallacoota, Melbourne, Australia, 12–16 March 1991.
  26. Vale, T.; Spratt, D.; Cloonan, M. Serological evidence of arbovirus infection in native and domesticated mammals on the south coast of New South Wales. Aust. J. Zool. 1991, 39, 1–7.
  27. Boyd, A.; Kay, B. Assessment of the potential of dogs and cats as urban reservoirs of Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses. Aust. Vet. J. 2002, 80, 83–86.
  28. Olson, K.; Trent, D. Genetic and antigenic variations among geographical isolates of Sindbis virus. J. Gen. Virol. 1985, 66, 797–810.
  29. Dhileepan, K.; Azuolas, J.; Gibson, C. Evidence of vertical transmission of Ross River and Sindbis viruses (Togaviridae: Alphavirus) by mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in southeastern Australia. J. Med. Entomol. 1996, 33, 180–182.
  30. Sammels, L.M.; Lindsay, M.D.; Poidinger, M.; Coelen, R.J.; Mackenzie, J.S. Geographic distribution and evolution of Sindbis virus in Australia. J. Gen. Virol. 1999, 80, 739–748.
  31. Johansen, C.; Power, S.; Broom, A. Determination of mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) bloodmeal sources in Western Australia: Implications for arbovirus transmission. J. Med. Entomol. 2009, 46, 1167–1175.
  32. Cordova, S.; Smith, D.; Broom, A.; Lindsay, M.; Dowse, G.; Beers, M. Murray Valley encephalitis in Western Australia in 2000, with evidence of southerly spread. Commun. Dis. Intell. 2000, 24, 368–372.
  33. Hobson-Peters, J.; Yam, A.W.Y.; Lu, J.W.F.; Setoh, Y.X.; May, F.J.; Kurucz, N.; Walsh, S.; Prow, N.A.; Davis, S.S.; Weir, R. A new insect-specific flavivirus from northern Australia suppresses replication of West Nile virus and Murray Valley encephalitis virus in co-infected mosquito cells. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e56534.
  34. Marshall, I.D.; Brown, B.K.; Keith, K.; Gard, G.P.; Thibos, E. Variation in arbovirus infection rates in species of birds sampled in a serological survey during an encephalitis epidemic in the Murray Valley of south-eastern Australia, February 1974. Immunol. Cell Biol. 1982, 60, 471.
  35. Kay, B.; Fanning, I.; Carley, J. The vector competence of Australian Culex annulirostris with Murray Valley encephalitis and Kunjin viruses. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1984, 62, 641–650.
  36. Johansen, C.A.; Susai, V.; Hall, R.A.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Clark, D.C.; May, F.J.; Hemmerter, S.; Smith, D.W.; Broom, A.K. Genetic and phenotypic differences between isolates of Murray Valley encephalitis virus in Western Australia, 1972–2003. Virus Genes 2007, 35, 147–154.
  37. Kay, B.; Young, P.; Hall, R.; Fanning, I. Experimental infection with Murray Valley encephalitis virus. Pigs, cattle, sheep, dogs, rabbits, macropods and chickens. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1985, 63, 109–126.
  38. Kay, B.; Hall, R.; Fanning, I.; Young, P. Experimental infection with Murray Valley Encephalitis virus: Galahs, sulphur-crested cockatoos, corellas, black ducks and wild mice. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1985, 63, 599–606.
  39. Carver, S.; Bestall, A.; Jardine, A.; Ostfeld, R.S. Influence of hosts on the ecology of arboviral transmission: Potential mechanisms influencing dengue, Murray Valley encephalitis, and Ross River virus in Australia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2009, 9, 51–64.
  40. Gordon, A.N.; Marbach, C.R.; Oakey, J.; Edmunds, G.; Condon, K.; Diviney, S.M.; Williams, D.T.; Bingham, J. Confirmed case of encephalitis caused by Murray Valley encephalitis virus infection in a horse. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2012, 24, 431–436.
  41. Holmes, J.; Gilkerson, J.; El Hage, C.; Slocombe, R.; Muurlink, M. Murray Valley encephalomyelitis in a horse. Aust. Vet. J. 2012, 90, 252–254.
  42. Frost, M.J.; Zhang, J.; Edmonds, J.H.; Prow, N.A.; Gu, X.; Davis, R.; Hornitzky, C.; Arzey, K.E.; Finlaison, D.; Hick, P. Characterization of virulent West Nile virus Kunjin strain, Australia, 2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2012, 18, 792.
  43. Jansen, C.C.; Ritchie, S.A.; van den Hurk, A.F. The Role of Australian Mosquito Species in the Transmission of Endemic and Exotic West Nile Virus Strains. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 3735–3752.
  44. Scherret, J.H.; Poidinger, M.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Broom, A.K.; Deubel, V.; Lipkin, W.I.; Briese, T.; Gould, E.A.; Hall, R.A. The Relationships between West Nile and Kunjin Viruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 697–705.
  45. Prow, N.A. The Changing Epidemiology of Kunjin Virus in Australia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 6255–6272.
  46. Jansen, C.C.; Webb, C.E.; Northill, J.A.; Ritchie, S.A.; Russell, R.C.; Hurk, A.F.V.D. Vector Competence of Australian Mosquito Species for a North American Strain of West Nile Virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2008, 8, 805–812.
  47. Maute, K.; Webb, C.; Phalen, D.; Martin, J.; Hobson-Peters, J.; Major, R.E.; French, K. Clean bill of health? Towards an understanding of health risks posed by urban ibis. J. Urban Ecol. 2019, 5, juz006.
  48. van den Hurk, A.F.; Hall-Mendelin, S.; Webb, C.E.; Tan, C.S.E.; Frentiu, F.D.; Prow, N.A.; Hall, R.A. Role of enhanced vector transmission of a new West Nile virus strain in an outbreak of equine disease in Australia in 2011. Parasit. Vectors 2014, 7, 586.
  49. Langevin, S.A.; Brault, A.C.; Panella, N.A.; Bowen, R.A.; Komar, N. Variation in virulence of West Nile virus strains for house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2005, 72, 99–102.
  50. Tiawsirisup, S.; Platt, K.B.; Tucker, B.J.; Rowley, W.A. Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2005, 5, 342–350.
  51. Suen, W.; Prow, N.; Wang, W.; Broad, N.; Hall, R.; Kirkland, P.; Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H. The establishment of a rabbit model to elucidate the mechanism of neuroinvasion by an emergent Australian West Nile virus, In Proceedings of the 7th Australasian Virology Society Meeting, Queenstown, New Zealand, 8–11 December 2013.
  52. Austgen, L.E.; Bowen, R.A.; Bunning, M.L.; Davis, B.S.; Mitchell, C.J.; Chang, G.-J.J. Experimental infection of cats and dogs with West Nile virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 82.
  53. Hanna, J.N.; Ritchie, S.A.; Phillips, D.A.; Shield, J.; Bailey, M.C.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Poidinger, M.; McCall, B.J.; Mills, P.J. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995. Med. J. Aust. 1996, 165, 256–260.
  54. Hanna, J.N.; Ritchie, S.A.; Hills, S.L.; van den Hurk, A.F.; Phillips, D.A.; Pyke, A.T.; Lee, J.M.; Johansen, C.A.; Mackenzie, J.S. Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998. Med. J. Aust. 1999, 170, 533–536.
  55. Burke, D.; Leake, C. Japanese encephalitis. In Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology; Monath, T., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1988.
  56. Ompusunggu, S.; Hills, S.L.; Maha, M.S.; Moniaga, V.A.; Susilarini, N.K.; Widjaya, A.; Sasmito, A.; Suwandono, A.; Sedyaningsih, E.R.; Jacobson, J.A. Confirmation of Japanese encephalitis as an endemic human disease through sentinel surveillance in Indonesia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 79, 963–970.
  57. Halstead, S.B.; Jacobson, J. Japanese encephalitis. Adv. Virus Res. 2003, 61, 103–138.
  58. van den Hurk, A.F.; Ritchie, S.A.; Johansen, C.A.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Smith, G.A. Domestic pigs and Japanese encephalitis virus infection, Australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 1736.
  59. Lim, S.I.; Kweon, C.H.; Tark, D.S.; Kim, S.H.; Yang, D.K. Sero-survey on Aino, Akabane, Chuzan, bovine ephemeral fever and Japanese encephalitis virus of cattle and swine in Korea. J. Vet. Sci. 2007, 8, 45–49.
  60. van den Hurk, A.F.; Smith, C.S.; Field, H.E.; Smith, I.L.; Northill, J.A.; Taylor, C.T.; Jansen, C.C.; Smith, G.A.; Mackenzie, J.S. Transmission of Japanese encephalitis virus from the black flying fox, Pteropus alecto, to Culex annulirostris mosquitoes, despite the absence of detectable viremia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81, 457–462.
  61. Russell, R. Arboviruses and their vectors in Australia: An update on the ecology and epidemiology of some mosquito-borne arboviruses. Rev. Med. Vet. Entomol. 1995, 83, 141–158.
  62. Mackenzie, J.; Lindsay, M.; Coelen, R.; Broom, A.; Hall, R.; Smith, D. Arboviruses causing human disease in the Australasian zoogeographic region. Arch. Virol. 1994, 136, 447–467.
  63. Toi, C.S.; Webb, C.E.; Haniotis, J.; Clancy, J.; Doggett, S.L. Seasonal activity, vector relationships and genetic analysis of mosquito-borne Stratford virus. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0173105.
  64. Doherty, R.L.; Carley, J.; Gorman, B.M.; Buchanan, P.; Welch, J.; Whitehead, R. Studies of arthropod-borne virus infections in Queensland: IV. Further serological investigations of antibodies to group B arboviruses in man and animals. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1964, 42, 149–164.
  65. May, F.J.; Clark, D.C.; Pham, K.; Diviney, S.M.; Williams, D.T.; Field, E.J.; Kuno, G.; Chang, G.-J.; Cheah, W.Y.; Setoh, Y.X.; et al. Genetic divergence among members of the Kokobera group of flaviviruses supports their separation into distinct species. J. Gen. Virol. 2013, 94, 1462–1467.
  66. Briese, T.; Williams, D.T.; Kapoor, V.; Diviney, S.M.; Certoma, A.; Wang, J.; Johansen, C.A.; Chowdhary, R.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Lipkin, W.I. Analysis of arbovirus isolates from Australia identifies novel bunyaviruses including a Mapputta group virus from Western Australia that links Gan Gan and Maprik viruses. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0164868.
 

, because of their confinement to edges of permanent wetlands that are not suitable for urban development [128]. However, while some Australian wildlife species are struggling to adapt to rapid environmental and climatic change, some are proliferating. Possums, for example, have been seen thriving in urban environments as they are more tolerant of disturbances compared to other marsupials [121][129]. While this is good for the maintenance of the possum population, it is also suspected that they might cause disease outbreaks in urban areas due to the lack of biodiversity and the close proximity to humans or domestic animals [130].

References

  1. Webb, C.; Doggett, S.; Russell, R. A Guide to Mosquitoes of Australia; CSIRO Publishing: Canberra, Australia, 2016.
  2. Jansen, C.C.; Webb, C.E.; Graham, G.C.; Craig, S.B.; Zborowski, P.; Ritchie, S.A.; Russell, R.C.; Van den Hurk, A.F. Blood sources of mosquitoes collected from urban and peri-urban environments in eastern Australia with species-specific molecular analysis of avian blood meals. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81, 849–857.
  3. Reiter, P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 141.
  4. Stephenson, E.B.; Murphy, A.K.; Jansen, C.C.; Peel, A.J.; McCallum, H. Interpreting mosquito feeding patterns in Australia through an ecological lens: An analysis of blood meal studies. Parasit. Vectors 2019, 12, 156.
  5. Takken, W.; Verhulst, N.O. Host preferences of blood-feeding mosquitoes. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2013, 58, 433–453.
  6. Gyawali, N.; Taylor-Robinson, A.W.; Bradbury, R.S.; Huggins, D.W.; Hugo, L.E.; Lowry, K.; Aaskov, J.G. Identification of the source of blood meals in mosquitoes collected from north-eastern Australia. Parasit. Vectors 2019, 12, 198.
  7. Russell, R.C.; Dwyer, D.E. Arboviruses associated with human disease in Australia. Microbes Infect. 2000, 2, 1693–1704.
  8. Flies, E.J.; Lau, C.L.; Carver, S.; Weinstein, P. Another Emerging Mosquito-Borne Disease? Endemic Ross River Virus Transmission in the Absence of Marsupial Reservoirs. Bioscience 2018, 68, 288–293.
  9. Old, J.M.; Deane, E.M. Antibodies to the Ross River virus in captive marsupials in urban areas of eastern New South Wales, Australia. J. Wildl. Dis. 2005, 41, 611–614.
  10. Boyd, A.M.; Hall, R.A.; Gemmell, R.T.; Kay, B.H. Experimental infection of Australian brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula (Phalangeridae: Marsupialia), with Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses by use of a natural mosquito vector system. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2001, 65, 777–782.
  11. Doherty, R.; Standfast, H.; Domrow, R.; Wetters, E.; Whitehead, R.; Carley, J. Studies of the epidemiology of arthropod-borne virus infections at Mitchell River Mission, Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland IV. Arbovirus infections of mosquitoes and mammals, 1967–1969. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1971, 65, 504–513.
  12. Potter, A.; Johansen, C.A.; Fenwick, S.; Reid, S.A.; Lindsay, M.D. The seroprevalence and factors associated with Ross River virus infection in western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) in Western Australia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2014, 14, 740–745.
  13. Russell, R.C. Ross River virus: Ecology and distribution. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2002, 47, 1–31.
  14. Stephenson, E.B.; Peel, A.J.; Reid, S.A.; Jansen, C.C.; McCallum, H. The non-human reservoirs of Ross River virus: A systematic review of the evidence. Parasit. Vectors 2018, 11, 188.
  15. Kay, B.H.; Boyd, A.M.; Ryan, P.A.; Hall, R.A. Mosquito feeding patterns and natural infection of vertebrates with Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses in Brisbane, Australia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 76, 417–423.
  16. Roche, S.; Wicks, R.; Garner, M.; East, I.; Paskin, R.; Moloney, B.; Carr, M.; Kirkland, P. Descriptive overview of the 2011 epidemic of arboviral disease in horses in Australia. Aust. Vet. J. 2013, 91, 5–13.
  17. National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System. Available online: (accessed on 30 January 2021).
  18. Kay, B.H.; Ryan, P.A. Vector Competence of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from Maroochy Shire, Australia, for Barmah Forest Virus. J. Med. Entomol. 1999, 36, 856–860.
  19. Aldred, J.; Campbell, J.; Mitchell, G.; Davis, G.; Elliott, J. Involvement of Wildlife in the Natural Cycle of Ross River and Barmah Forest Viruses. In Proceedings of the Wildlife Disease Association Meeting, Mallacoota, Melbourne, Australia, 12–16 March 1991.
  20. Vale, T.; Spratt, D.; Cloonan, M. Serological evidence of arbovirus infection in native and domesticated mammals on the south coast of New South Wales. Aust. J. Zool. 1991, 39, 1–7.
  21. Boyd, A.; Kay, B. Assessment of the potential of dogs and cats as urban reservoirs of Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses. Aust. Vet. J. 2002, 80, 83–86.
  22. Olson, K.; Trent, D. Genetic and antigenic variations among geographical isolates of Sindbis virus. J. Gen. Virol. 1985, 66, 797–810.
  23. Dhileepan, K.; Azuolas, J.; Gibson, C. Evidence of vertical transmission of Ross River and Sindbis viruses (Togaviridae: Alphavirus) by mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in southeastern Australia. J. Med. Entomol. 1996, 33, 180–182.
  24. Sammels, L.M.; Lindsay, M.D.; Poidinger, M.; Coelen, R.J.; Mackenzie, J.S. Geographic distribution and evolution of Sindbis virus in Australia. J. Gen. Virol. 1999, 80, 739–748.
  25. Johansen, C.; Power, S.; Broom, A. Determination of mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) bloodmeal sources in Western Australia: Implications for arbovirus transmission. J. Med. Entomol. 2009, 46, 1167–1175.
  26. Cordova, S.; Smith, D.; Broom, A.; Lindsay, M.; Dowse, G.; Beers, M. Murray Valley encephalitis in Western Australia in 2000, with evidence of southerly spread. Commun. Dis. Intell. 2000, 24, 368–372.
  27. Hobson-Peters, J.; Yam, A.W.Y.; Lu, J.W.F.; Setoh, Y.X.; May, F.J.; Kurucz, N.; Walsh, S.; Prow, N.A.; Davis, S.S.; Weir, R. A new insect-specific flavivirus from northern Australia suppresses replication of West Nile virus and Murray Valley encephalitis virus in co-infected mosquito cells. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e56534.
  28. Marshall, I.D.; Brown, B.K.; Keith, K.; Gard, G.P.; Thibos, E. Variation in arbovirus infection rates in species of birds sampled in a serological survey during an encephalitis epidemic in the Murray Valley of south-eastern Australia, February 1974. Immunol. Cell Biol. 1982, 60, 471.
  29. Kay, B.; Fanning, I.; Carley, J. The vector competence of Australian Culex annulirostris with Murray Valley encephalitis and Kunjin viruses. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1984, 62, 641–650.
  30. Johansen, C.A.; Susai, V.; Hall, R.A.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Clark, D.C.; May, F.J.; Hemmerter, S.; Smith, D.W.; Broom, A.K. Genetic and phenotypic differences between isolates of Murray Valley encephalitis virus in Western Australia, 1972–2003. Virus Genes 2007, 35, 147–154.
  31. Kay, B.; Young, P.; Hall, R.; Fanning, I. Experimental infection with Murray Valley encephalitis virus. Pigs, cattle, sheep, dogs, rabbits, macropods and chickens. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1985, 63, 109–126.
  32. Kay, B.; Hall, R.; Fanning, I.; Young, P. Experimental infection with Murray Valley Encephalitis virus: Galahs, sulphur-crested cockatoos, corellas, black ducks and wild mice. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1985, 63, 599–606.
  33. Carver, S.; Bestall, A.; Jardine, A.; Ostfeld, R.S. Influence of hosts on the ecology of arboviral transmission: Potential mechanisms influencing dengue, Murray Valley encephalitis, and Ross River virus in Australia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2009, 9, 51–64.
  34. Gordon, A.N.; Marbach, C.R.; Oakey, J.; Edmunds, G.; Condon, K.; Diviney, S.M.; Williams, D.T.; Bingham, J. Confirmed case of encephalitis caused by Murray Valley encephalitis virus infection in a horse. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2012, 24, 431–436.
  35. Holmes, J.; Gilkerson, J.; El Hage, C.; Slocombe, R.; Muurlink, M. Murray Valley encephalomyelitis in a horse. Aust. Vet. J. 2012, 90, 252–254.
  36. Frost, M.J.; Zhang, J.; Edmonds, J.H.; Prow, N.A.; Gu, X.; Davis, R.; Hornitzky, C.; Arzey, K.E.; Finlaison, D.; Hick, P. Characterization of virulent West Nile virus Kunjin strain, Australia, 2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2012, 18, 792.
  37. Jansen, C.C.; Ritchie, S.A.; van den Hurk, A.F. The Role of Australian Mosquito Species in the Transmission of Endemic and Exotic West Nile Virus Strains. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 3735–3752.
  38. Scherret, J.H.; Poidinger, M.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Broom, A.K.; Deubel, V.; Lipkin, W.I.; Briese, T.; Gould, E.A.; Hall, R.A. The Relationships between West Nile and Kunjin Viruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 697–705.
  39. Prow, N.A. The Changing Epidemiology of Kunjin Virus in Australia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 6255–6272.
  40. Jansen, C.C.; Webb, C.E.; Northill, J.A.; Ritchie, S.A.; Russell, R.C.; Hurk, A.F.V.D. Vector Competence of Australian Mosquito Species for a North American Strain of West Nile Virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2008, 8, 805–812.
  41. Maute, K.; Webb, C.; Phalen, D.; Martin, J.; Hobson-Peters, J.; Major, R.E.; French, K. Clean bill of health? Towards an understanding of health risks posed by urban ibis. J. Urban Ecol. 2019, 5, juz006.
  42. van den Hurk, A.F.; Hall-Mendelin, S.; Webb, C.E.; Tan, C.S.E.; Frentiu, F.D.; Prow, N.A.; Hall, R.A. Role of enhanced vector transmission of a new West Nile virus strain in an outbreak of equine disease in Australia in 2011. Parasit. Vectors 2014, 7, 586.
  43. Langevin, S.A.; Brault, A.C.; Panella, N.A.; Bowen, R.A.; Komar, N. Variation in virulence of West Nile virus strains for house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2005, 72, 99–102.
  44. Tiawsirisup, S.; Platt, K.B.; Tucker, B.J.; Rowley, W.A. Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2005, 5, 342–350.
  45. Suen, W.; Prow, N.; Wang, W.; Broad, N.; Hall, R.; Kirkland, P.; Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H. The establishment of a rabbit model to elucidate the mechanism of neuroinvasion by an emergent Australian West Nile virus, In Proceedings of the 7th Australasian Virology Society Meeting, Queenstown, New Zealand, 8–11 December 2013.
  46. Austgen, L.E.; Bowen, R.A.; Bunning, M.L.; Davis, B.S.; Mitchell, C.J.; Chang, G.-J.J. Experimental infection of cats and dogs with West Nile virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 82.
  47. Hanna, J.N.; Ritchie, S.A.; Phillips, D.A.; Shield, J.; Bailey, M.C.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Poidinger, M.; McCall, B.J.; Mills, P.J. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995. Med. J. Aust. 1996, 165, 256–260.
  48. Hanna, J.N.; Ritchie, S.A.; Hills, S.L.; van den Hurk, A.F.; Phillips, D.A.; Pyke, A.T.; Lee, J.M.; Johansen, C.A.; Mackenzie, J.S. Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998. Med. J. Aust. 1999, 170, 533–536.
  49. Burke, D.; Leake, C. Japanese encephalitis. In Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology; Monath, T., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1988.
  50. Ompusunggu, S.; Hills, S.L.; Maha, M.S.; Moniaga, V.A.; Susilarini, N.K.; Widjaya, A.; Sasmito, A.; Suwandono, A.; Sedyaningsih, E.R.; Jacobson, J.A. Confirmation of Japanese encephalitis as an endemic human disease through sentinel surveillance in Indonesia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 79, 963–970.
  51. Halstead, S.B.; Jacobson, J. Japanese encephalitis. Adv. Virus Res. 2003, 61, 103–138.
  52. van den Hurk, A.F.; Ritchie, S.A.; Johansen, C.A.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Smith, G.A. Domestic pigs and Japanese encephalitis virus infection, Australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 1736.
  53. Lim, S.I.; Kweon, C.H.; Tark, D.S.; Kim, S.H.; Yang, D.K. Sero-survey on Aino, Akabane, Chuzan, bovine ephemeral fever and Japanese encephalitis virus of cattle and swine in Korea. J. Vet. Sci. 2007, 8, 45–49.
  54. van den Hurk, A.F.; Smith, C.S.; Field, H.E.; Smith, I.L.; Northill, J.A.; Taylor, C.T.; Jansen, C.C.; Smith, G.A.; Mackenzie, J.S. Transmission of Japanese encephalitis virus from the black flying fox, Pteropus alecto, to Culex annulirostris mosquitoes, despite the absence of detectable viremia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81, 457–462.
  55. Russell, R. Arboviruses and their vectors in Australia: An update on the ecology and epidemiology of some mosquito-borne arboviruses. Rev. Med. Vet. Entomol. 1995, 83, 141–158.
  56. Mackenzie, J.; Lindsay, M.; Coelen, R.; Broom, A.; Hall, R.; Smith, D. Arboviruses causing human disease in the Australasian zoogeographic region. Arch. Virol. 1994, 136, 447–467.
  57. Toi, C.S.; Webb, C.E.; Haniotis, J.; Clancy, J.; Doggett, S.L. Seasonal activity, vector relationships and genetic analysis of mosquito-borne Stratford virus. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0173105.
  58. Doherty, R.L.; Carley, J.; Gorman, B.M.; Buchanan, P.; Welch, J.; Whitehead, R. Studies of arthropod-borne virus infections in Queensland: IV. Further serological investigations of antibodies to group B arboviruses in man and animals. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 1964, 42, 149–164.
  59. May, F.J.; Clark, D.C.; Pham, K.; Diviney, S.M.; Williams, D.T.; Field, E.J.; Kuno, G.; Chang, G.-J.; Cheah, W.Y.; Setoh, Y.X.; et al. Genetic divergence among members of the Kokobera group of flaviviruses supports their separation into distinct species. J. Gen. Virol. 2013, 94, 1462–1467.
  60. Briese, T.; Williams, D.T.; Kapoor, V.; Diviney, S.M.; Certoma, A.; Wang, J.; Johansen, C.A.; Chowdhary, R.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Lipkin, W.I. Analysis of arbovirus isolates from Australia identifies novel bunyaviruses including a Mapputta group virus from Western Australia that links Gan Gan and Maprik viruses. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0164868.
  61. Gard, G.; Marshall, I.D.; Woodroofe, G.M. Annually recurrent epidemic polyarthritis and Ross River virus activity in a coastal area of New South Wales: II. Mosquitoes, viruses, and wildlife. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1973, 22, 551–560.
  62. Doherty, R.; Whitehead, R.; Wetters, E.J.; Gorman, B. Studies of the epidemiology of arthropod-borne virus infections at Mitchell River Mission, Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland: II. Arbovirus infections of mosquitoes, man and domestic fowls, 1963–1966. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1968, 62, 430–438.
  63. Weir, R.P. Classification and Identification of Viruses Isolated from Mosquitoes in the Northern Territory, 1982–1992, Using a Range of Techniques. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 2002.
  64. Johansen, C.A.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Smith, D.W.; Lindsay, M.D.A. Prevalence of neutralising antibodies to Barmah Forest, Sindbis and Trubanaman viruses in animals and humans in the south-west of Western Australia. Aust. J. Zool. 2005, 53, 51–58.
  65. Johnson, C.N.; Isaac, J.L.; Fisher, D.O. Rarity of a top predator triggers continent-wide collapse of mammal prey: Dingoes and marsupials in Australia. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2006, 274, 341–346.
  66. Old, J.M.; Deane, E.M. The detection of mature T-and B-cells during development of the lymphoid tissues of the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii). J. Anat. 2003, 203, 123–131.
  67. Old, J.M.; Selwood, L.; Deane, E.M. The appearance and distribution of mature T and B cells in the developing immune tissues of the stripe-faced dunnart (Sminthopsis macroura). J. Anat. 2004, 205, 25–33.
  68. Wilson, D.; Fox, D.; Rowlands, D., Jr. Proliferative reactivity of opossum peripheral blood leukocytes to allogeneic cells, mitogens, and specific antigens. Transplantation 1976, 21, 164–167.
  69. Stone, W.H.; Bruun, D.A.; Foster, E.B.; Manis, G.S.; Hoffman, E.S.; Saphire, D.G.; VandeBerg, J.L.; Infante, A.J. Absence of a significant mixed lymphocyte reaction in a marsupial (Monodelphis domestica). Comp. Med. 1998, 48, 184–189.
  70. Belov, K.; Miller, R.D.; Old, J.M.; Young, L.J. Marsupial immunology bounding ahead. Aust. J. Zool. 2013, 61, 24–40.
  71. Mackenzie, J.S.; Gubler, D.J.; Petersen, L.R. Emerging flaviviruses: The spread and resurgence of Japanese encephalitis, West Nile and dengue viruses. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, S98.
  72. Mackenzie, J.S.; van den Hurk, A.F. The risks to Australia from emerging and exotic arboviruses. Microbiol. Aust. 2018, 63, 24–27.
  73. Kraemer, M.U.; Sinka, M.E.; Duda, K.A.; Mylne, A.Q.; Shearer, F.M.; Barker, C.M.; Moore, C.G.; Carvalho, R.G.; Coelho, G.E.; Van Bortel, W. The global distribution of the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus. eLife 2015, 4, e08347.
  74. Bartlow, A.W.; Manore, C.; Xu, C.; Kaufeld, K.A.; Del Valle, S.; Ziemann, A.; Fairchild, G.; Fair, J.M. Forecasting zoonotic infectious disease response to climate change: Mosquito vectors and a changing environment. Vet. Sci. 2019, 6, 40.
  75. Yu, W.; Dale, P.; Turner, L.; Tong, S. Projecting the impact of climate change on the transmission of Ross River virus: Methodological challenges and research needs. Epidemiol. Infect. 2014, 142, 2013–2023.
  76. Patz, J.A.; Graczyk, T.K.; Geller, N.; Vittor, A.Y. Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases. Int. J. Parasitol. 2000, 30, 1395–1405.
  77. Scott, T.W.; Clark, G.G.; Lorenz, L.H.; Amerasinghe, P.H.; Reiter, P.; Edman, J.D. Detection of multiple blood feeding in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) during a single gonotrophic cycle using a histologic technique. J. Med. Entomol. 1993, 30, 94–99.
  78. Loehle, C.; Eschenbach, W. Historical bird and terrestrial mammal extinction rates and causes. Divers. Distrib. 2012, 18, 84–91.
  79. Urban, M.C. Accelerating extinction risk from climate change. Science 2015, 348, 571–573.
  80. Schmidt, K.A.; Ostfeld, R.S. Biodiversity and the dilution effect in disease ecology. Ecology 2001, 82, 609–619.
  81. Bradley, C.A.; Altizer, S. Urbanization and the ecology of wildlife diseases. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2007, 22, 95–102.
  82. LoGiudice, K.; Ostfeld, R.S.; Schmidt, K.A.; Keesing, F. The ecology of infectious disease: Effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 567–571.
  83. Russell, R. Transport of insects of public health importance on international aircraft. Travel Med. Int. 1989, 7, 26–31.
  84. Russell, R. Survival of insects in the wheel bays of a Boeing 747B aircraft on flights between tropical and temperate airports. Bull. World Health Organ. 1987, 65, 659.
  85. Gratz, N.G.; Steffen, R.; Cocksedge, W. Why aircraft disinsection? Bull. World Health Organ. 2000, 78, 995–1004.
  86. Baldwin, C.; Ross, H. Our warming climate and fire’s role in the Australian landscape. Australas. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 26, 305–310.
  87. Biondi, M.; Zannino, L.-G. Psychological stress, neuroimmunomodulation, and susceptibility to infectious diseases in animals and man: A review. Psychother. Psychosom. 1997, 66, 3–26.
  88. Pickrell, J. Australian blazes will ‘reframe our understanding of bushfire’. Science 2019, 366, 937.
  89. Behera, S.; Sahu, S.; Pradhan, B. Bushfire Study: Causes, effects and risks to the ecosystem due to changes in climate. Int. J. Mod. Agric. 2020, 9, 579–589.
  90. Wallis, R.L. Koalas Phascolarctos cinereus in Framlingham Forest, south-west Victoria: Introduction, translocation and the effects of a bushfire. Vic. Nat. 2013, 130, 37.
  91. Bain, K.; Halley, M.; Barton, B.; Wayne, A.; McGilvray, A.; Wilson, I.; Wayne, J. Survival of Quokkas in the 2015 Northcliffe Bush Fire: Understanding the Impact of Intense and Broadscale Fire on an Important Population of Quokkas in the Southern Forest of Western Australia; WWF Australia: Wembley, Australia, 2016; p. 34.
  92. Russell, B.; Smith, B.; Augee, M. Changes to a population of common ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) after bushfire. Wildl. Res. 2003, 30, 389–396.
  93. Kiem, A.S.; Johnson, F.; Westra, S.; van Dijk, A.; Evans, J.P.; O’Donnell, A.; Rouillard, A.; Barr, C.; Tyler, J.; Thyer, M. Natural hazards in Australia: Droughts. Clim. Chang. 2016, 139, 37–54.
  94. Johnson, B.J.; Fonseca, D.M. The effects of forced-egg retention on the blood-feeding behavior and reproductive potential of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Insect Physiol. 2014, 66, 53–58.
  95. Smartt, C.T.; Richards, S.L.; Anderson, S.L.; Vitek, C.J. Effects of forced egg retention on the temporal progression of West Nile virus infection in Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Environ. Entomol. 2010, 39, 190–194.
  96. Townroe, S.; Callaghan, A. British container breeding mosquitoes: The impact of urbanisation and climate change on community composition and phenology. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e95325.
  97. Beebe, N.W.; Cooper, R.D.; Mottram, P.; Sweeney, A.W. Australia’s dengue risk driven by human adaptation to climate change. Plos Negl. Trop. Dis. 2009, 3, e429.
  98. Epstein, P. The ecology of climate change and infectious diseases: Comment. Ecology 2010, 91, 925–928.
  99. Parrott, M.L.; Ward, S.J.; Temple-Smith, P.D.; Selwood, L. Effects of drought on weight, survival and breeding success of agile antechinus (Antechinus agilis), dusky antechinus (A. swainsonii) and bush rats (Rattus fuscipes). Wildl. Res. 2007, 34, 437–442.
  100. Rhind, S. Reproductive demographics among brush-tailed phascogales (Phascogale tapoatafa) in south-western Australia. Wildl. Res. 2002, 29, 247–257.
  101. Pople, A.R.; Phinn, S.R.; Menke, N.; Grigg, G.C.; Possingham, H.P.; McAlpine, C. Spatial patterns of kangaroo density across the South Australian pastoral zone over 26 years: Aggregation during drought and suggestions of long distance movement. J. Appl. Ecol. 2007, 44, 1068–1079.
  102. Taylor-Brown, A.; Booth, R.; Gillett, A.; Mealy, E.; Ogbourne, S.M.; Polkinghorne, A.; Conroy, G.C. The impact of human activities on Australian wildlife. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0206958.
  103. McKechnie, A.E.; Wolf, B.O. The physiology of heat tolerance in small endotherms. Physiology 2019, 34, 302–313.
  104. Cleugh, H.; Cleugh, H.; Smith, M.S.; Battaglia, M.; Graham, P. Climate Change: Science and Solutions for Australia; CSIRO Publishing: Collinwood, Australia, 2011.
  105. Mackenzie, J.; Lindsay, M.; Broom, A. Climate changes and vector-borne diseases: Potential consequences for human health. In Health in the Greenhouse: The Medical and Environmental Health Effects of Global Climate Change; Ewan, C.E., Bryant, E.A., Calvert, C.D., Carrick, J.A., Eds.; Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, Australia, 1993; pp. 229–234.
  106. Hanna, J.N.; Ritchie, S.A. Outbreaks of dengue in north Queensland, 1990–2008. Commun. Dis. Intell. 2009, 33, 32.
  107. Williams, C.R.; Mincham, G.; Ritchie, S.A.; Viennet, E.; Harley, D. Bionomic response of Aedes aegypti to two future climate change scenarios in far north Queensland, Australia: Implications for dengue outbreaks. Parasit. Vectors 2014, 7, 47.
  108. Samy, A.M.; Elaagip, A.H.; Kenawy, M.A.; Ayres, C.F.; Peterson, A.T.; Soliman, D.E. Climate change influences on the global potential distribution of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus, vector of West Nile virus and lymphatic filariasis. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0163863.
  109. Ren, Z.; Wang, D.; Ma, A.; Hwang, J.; Bennett, A.; Sturrock, H.J.; Fan, J.; Zhang, W.; Yang, D.; Feng, X. Predicting malaria vector distribution under climate change scenarios in China: Challenges for malaria elimination. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 1–13.
  110. Brady, O.J.; Golding, N.; Pigott, D.M.; Kraemer, M.U.; Messina, J.P.; Reiner, R.C., Jr.; Scott, T.W.; Smith, D.L.; Gething, P.W.; Hay, S.I. Global temperature constraints on Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus persistence and competence for dengue virus transmission. Parasit. Vectors 2014, 7, 338.
  111. Faull, K.J.; Williams, C.R. Intraspecific variation in desiccation survival time of Aedes aegypti (L.) mosquito eggs of Australian origin. J. Vector Ecol. 2015, 40, 292–300.
  112. Costa, E.A.P.A.; Santos, E.M.M.; Correia, J.C.; Albuquerque, C.M.R. Impact of small variations in temperature and humidity on the reproductive activity and survival of Aedes aegypti (Diptera, Culicidae). Rev. Bras. Entomol. 2010, 54, 488–493.
  113. Parker, V.T.; Boyer, K.E. Sea-level rise and climate change impacts on an urbanized Pacific Coast estuary. Wetlands 2019, 39, 1219–1232.
  114. Ramasamy, R.; Surendran, S.N. Possible impact of rising sea levels on vector-borne infectious diseases. BMC Infect. Dis. 2011, 11, 18.
  115. Van Schie, C.; Spafford, H.; Carver, S.; Weinstein, P. Salinity tolerance of Aedes camptorhynchus (Diptera: Culicidae) from two regions in southwestern Australia. Austral. Entomol. 2009, 48, 293–299.
  116. Ryan, P.; Alsemgeest, D.; Gatton, M.; Kay, B. Ross River virus disease clusters and spatial relationship with mosquito biting exposure in Redland Shire, southern Queensland, Australia. J. Med. Entomol. 2006, 43, 1042–1059.
  117. Johnson, B.J.; Manby, R.; Devine, G.J. What happens on islands, doesn’t stay on islands: Patterns of synchronicity in mosquito nuisance and host-seeking activity between a mangrove island and adjacent coastal development. Urban Ecosyst. 2020, 23, 1321–1333.
  118. Taylor, L.H.; Latham, S.M.; Woolhouse, M.E. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2001, 356, 983–989.
  119. McFarlane, R.; Sleigh, A.; McMichael, A. Land-use change and emerging infectious disease on an island continent. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 2699–2719.
  120. Brunton, E.A.; Srivastava, S.K.; Schoeman, D.S.; Burnett, S. Quantifying trends and predictors of decline in eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) populations in a rapidly urbanising landscape. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 2018, 24, 63–73.
  121. Isaac, B.; White, J.; Ierodiaconou, D.; Cooke, R. Simplification of arboreal marsupial assemblages in response to increasing urbanization. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e91049.
  122. Moore, B.D.; Wallis, I.R.; Wood, J.T.; Foley, W.J. Foliar nutrition, site quality, and temperature influence foliar chemistry of tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys). Ecol. Monogr. 2004, 74, 553–568.
  123. Lunney, D.; Crowther, M.S.; Wallis, I.; Foley, W.J.; Lemon, J.; Wheeler, R.; Madani, G.; Orscheg, C.; Griffith, J.E.; Krockenberger, M. Koalas and climate change: A case study on the Liverpool Plains, north-west New South Wales. In Wildlife and Climate Change: Towards Robust Conservation Strategies for Australian Fauna; Lunney, D., Hutchings, P., Eds.; Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman, Australia, 2012; pp. 150–168.
  124. Adams-Hosking, C.; McBride, M.F.; Baxter, G.; Burgman, M.; De Villiers, D.; Kavanagh, R.; Lawler, I.; Lunney, D.; Melzer, A.; Menkhorst, P. Use of expert knowledge to elicit population trends for the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). Divers. Distrib. 2016, 22, 249–262.
  125. De Oliveira, S.; Murray, P.; De Villiers, D.; Baxter, G. Ecology and movement of urban koalas adjacent to linear infrastructure in coastal south-east Queensland. Aust. Mammal. 2014, 36, 45–54.
  126. Tarlinton, R.; Meers, J.; Hanger, J.; Young, P. Real-time reverse transcriptase PCR for the endogenous koala retrovirus reveals an association between plasma viral load and neoplastic disease in koalas. J. Gen. Virol. 2005, 86, 783–787.
  127. Williamson, K.; Doherty, H.; Di Stefano, J. Changes in the relative density of swamp wallabies (Wallabia bicolor) and Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) in response to timber harvesting and wildfire. In New Advances and Contributions to Forestry Research; Oteng-Amoako, A.A., Ed.; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2012; pp. 101–116.
  128. Johnson, B.J.; Robbins, A.; Gyawali, N.; Ong, O.; Loader, J.; Murphy, A.K.; Hanger, J.; Devine, G.J. The environmental and ecological determinants of elevated Ross River Virus exposure in koalas residing in urban coastal landscapes. Sci. Rep. 2021. under review.
  129. Hillman, A.E.; Lymbery, A.J.; Elliot, A.D.; Ash, A.L.; Thompson, R.A. Parasitic infections of brushtail possums Trichosurus vulpecula in urbanised environments and bushland in the greater Perth region, Western Australia. Wildl. Biol. 2018, 1.
  130. Soulsbury, C.D.; White, P.C. Human-wildlife interactions in urban areas: A review of conflicts, benefits and opportunities. Wildl. Res. 2016, 42, 541–553.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Academic Video Service
Feedback