Shift Work Disorder: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Lily Guo and Version 1 by Tae-Won Jang.

Shift work disorder (SWD), which is characterized by insomnia and excessive sleepiness related with shift work, is one of the most common health problems in shift workers. Shift work disorder causes insomnia, fatigue, worse work performance, an increased likelihood of accidents, and a poor quality of life. In addition, SWD is associated with decreased productivity and increased economic costs. The correct management of SWD is important to prevent sleep disturbances and maintain work performance in shift workers. To diagnose and evaluate SWD, it is necessary to take detailed medical histories, assess the severity of sleep disturbances, and evaluate shift workers’ sleep using a sleep diary and actigraphy. The work-fitness evaluation should include recommendations on how shift workers can reduce their sleep disturbances and increase work performance, as well as the assessment of work performance. This paper reviews previous research on the evaluation, diagnosis, and management of SWD and summarizes the work-fitness evaluation of SWD.

  • Shift Work Disorder
  • shift work
  • sleep disturbances
  • circadian rhythm
  • circadian disruption
  • sleep diary
  • actography
  • work-fitness
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Reinberg, A.E.; Ashkenazi, I. Internal Desynchronization of Circadian Rhythms and Tolerance to Shift Work. Int. 2008, 25, 625–643, doi:10.1080/07420520802256101.
  2. Potter, G.D.M.; Skene, D.J.; Arendt, J.; Cade, J.E.; Grant, P.J.; Hardie, L.J. Circadian Rhythm and Sleep Disruption: Causes, Metabolic Consequences, and Countermeasures. Rev. 2016, 37, 584–608, doi:10.1210/er.2016-1083.
  3. Chellappa, S.L.; Vujovic, N.; Williams, J.S.; Scheer, F.A. Impact of Circadian Disruption on Cardiovascular Function and Disease. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2019, 30, 767–779, doi:10.1016/j.tem.2019.07.008.
  4. Voigt, R.M.; Forsyth, C.B.; Keshavarzian, A. Circadian rhythms: A regulator of gastrointestinal health and dysfunction. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2019, 13, 411–424, doi:10.1080/17474124.2019.1595588.
  5. Torquati, L.; Mielke, G.I.; Brown, W.J.; Burton, N.W.; Kolbe-Alexander, T.L. Shift Work and Poor Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies. J. Public Health 2019, 109, e13–e20, doi:10.2105/ajph.2019.305278.
  6. Samuelsson, L.B.; Bovbjerg, D.H.; Roecklein, K.A.; Hall, M.H. Sleep and circadian disruption and incident breast cancer risk: An evidence-based and theoretical review. Biobehav. Rev. 2018, 84, 35–48, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.10.011.
  7. Cheng, P.; Drake, C. Shift Work Disorder. Clin. 2019, 37, 563–577.
  8. Wickwire, E.M.; Geiger-Brown, J.; Scharf, S.M.; Drake, C.L. Shift Work and Shift Work Sleep Disorder: Clinical and Organizational Perspectives. Chest 2017, 151, 1156–1172.
  9. Nena, E.; Katsaouni, M.; Steiropoulos, P.; Theodorou, E.; Constantinidis, T.C.; Tripsianis, G. Effect of shift work on sleep, health, and quality of life of health-care workers. Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2018, 22, 29–34, doi:10.4103/ijoem.ijoem_4_18.
  10. Culpepper, L. The social and economic burden of shift-work disorder. Fam. Pract. 2010, 59, S3.Plain Language about Shiftwork. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/97-145/ (accessed on 5 October 2020).
  11. Managing Shift Work: Health and Safety Guidance. Available online: https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg256.htm (accessed on 5 October 2020).
  12. Richter, K.; Acker, J.; Scholz, F.; Niklewski, G. Health promotion and work: Prevention of shift work disorders in companies. EPMA J. 2010, 1, 611–618, doi:10.1007/s13167-010-0057-7.
  13. Järnefelt, H.; Lagerstedt, R.; Kajaste, S.; Sallinen, M.; Savolainen, A.; Hublin, C. Cognitive behavioral therapy for shift workers with chronic insomnia. Sleep Med. 2012, 13, 1238–1246, doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2012.10.003.
  14. Minors, D.; Waterhouse, J.M. Does ‘anchor sleep’ entrain circadian rhythms? Evidence from constant routine studies. Physiol. 1983, 345, 451–467, doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1983.sp014988.
  15. Richter, K.; Acker, J.; Adam, S.; Niklewski, G. Prevention of fatigue and insomnia in shift workers-a review of non-pharmacological measures. EPMA J. 2016, 7, 16, doi:10.1186/s13167-016-0064-4.
  16. Kosmadopoulos, A.; Zhou, X.; Roach, G.D.; Darwent, D.; Sargent, C. No first night shift effect observed following a nocturnal main sleep and a prophylactic 1-h afternoon nap. Int. 2016, 33, 716–720, doi:10.3109/07420528.2016.1167727.
  17. Chapdelaine, S.; Paquet, J.; Dumont, M. Effects of partial circadian adjustments on sleep and vigilance quality during simulated night work. Sleep Res. 2012, 21, 380–389, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2012.00998.x.
  18. Boivin, D.B.; James, F.O. Light Treatment and Circadian Adaptation to Shift Work. Health 2005, 43, 34–48, doi:10.2486/indhealth.43.34.
  19. Morrissette, D.A. Twisting the night away: A review of the neurobiology, genetics, diagnosis, and treatment of shift work disorder. CNS Spectr. 2013, 18, 42–54, doi:10.1017/s109285291300076x.
  20. Vitaterna, M.H.; Takahashi, J.S.; Turek, F.W. Overview of Circadian Rhythms. Alcohol Res. Health 2001, 25, 85–93.
  21. Brown, T.M.; Piggins, H.D. Electrophysiology of the suprachiasmatic circadian clock. Neurobiol. 2007, 82, 229–255, doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2007.05.002.
  22. LeGates, T.A.; Fernandez, D.C.; Hattar, S. Light as a central modulator of circadian rhythms, sleep and affect. Rev. Neurosci. 2014, 15, 443–454, doi:10.1038/nrn3743.
  23. Pfeffer, M.; Korf, H.-W.; Wicht, H. Synchronizing effects of melatonin on diurnal and circadian rhythms. Comp. Endocrinol. 2018, 258, 215–221, doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.05.013.
  24. Markwald, R.R.; Lee-Chiong, T.L.; Burke, T.M.; Snider, J.A.; Wright, K.P. Effects of the Melatonin MT-1/MT-2 Agonist Ramelteon on Daytime Body Temperature and Sleep. Sleep 2010, 33, 825–831, doi:10.1093/sleep/33.6.825.
  25. Sccott, A.J. Chronobiological considerations in shiftworker sleep and performance and shiftwork scheduling. Perform. 1994, 7, 207–233.
  26. Monk, T.H. The relationship of chronobiology to sleep schedules and performance demands. Work Stress 1990, 4, 227–236, doi:10.1080/02678379008256985.
  27. Comperatore, C.A.; Krueger, G.P. Circadian rhythm desynchronosis, jet lag, shift lag, and coping strategies. Med. 1990, 5, 323–341.
  28. Motohashi, Y. Alteration of circadian rhythm in shift-working ambulance personnel. Monitoring of salivary Cortisol rhythm. Ergonomics 1992, 35, 1331–1340, doi:10.1080/00140139208967396.
  29. Boivin, D.B.; Boudreau, P. Impacts of shift work on sleep and circadian rhythms. Biol. 2014, 62, 292–301, doi:10.1016/j.patbio.2014.08.001.
  30. Sateia, M.J. International classification of sleep disorders-third edition: Highlights and modifications. Chest 2014, 146, 1387–1394.
  31. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Publishing: Washington, DC, USA, 2014.
  32. Kecklund, G.; Axelsson, J. Health consequences of shift work and insufficient sleep. BMJ 2016, 355, i5210, doi:10.1136/bmj.i5210.
  33. Bushnell, P.T.; Colombi, A.; Caruso, C.C.; Tak, S. Work Schedules and Health Behavior Outcomes at a Large Manufacturer. Health 2010, 48, 395–405, doi:10.2486/indhealth.mssw-03.
  34. Rundo, J.V.; Downey, R., 3rd. Polysomnography. Clin. Neurol. 2019, 160, 381–392.
  35. Ancoli-Israel, S.; Cole, R.; Alessi, C.; Chambers, M.; Moorcroft, W.; Pollak, C.P. The Role of Actigraphy in the Study of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms. Sleep 2003, 26, 342–392, doi:10.1093/sleep/26.3.342.
  36. De Souza, L.; Benedito-Silva, A.A.; Pires, M.L.N.; Poyares, D.; Tufik, S.; Calil, H.M. Further Validation of Actigraphy for Sleep Studies. Sleep 2003, 26, 81–85, doi:10.1093/sleep/26.1.81.
  37. Bastien, C.H.; Vallières, A.; Morin, C.M. Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index as an outcome measure for insomnia research. Sleep Med. 2001, 2, 297–307.
  38. Zoomer, J.; Peder, R.; Rubin, A.H.; Lavie, P. Mini sleep questionnaire for screening large populations for EDS complaints. In Sleep’84; Koella, W.P., Ruther, E., Schulz, H., Eds.; Gustav Fischer Verlag: Stuttgart, Germany, 1985; pp. 467–470.
  39. Johns, M.W. A New Method for Measuring Daytime Sleepiness: The Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Sleep 1991, 14, 540–545, doi:10.1093/sleep/14.6.540.
  40. Takegami, M.; Hayashino, Y.; Chin, K.; Sokejima, S.; Kadotani, H.; Akashiba, T.; Kimura, H.; Ohi, M.; Fukuhara, S. Simple Four-Variable Screening Tool for Identification of Patients with Sleep-Disordered Breathing. Sleep 2009, 32, 939–948.
  41. Buysse, D.J.; Reynolds, C.F., 3rd; Monk, T.H.; Berman, S.R.; Kupfer, D.J. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 1989, 28, 193–213.
  42. Papadimitriou, G.; Dikeos, D.G.; Paparrigopoulos, T.J. Athens Insomnia Scale: Validation of an instrument based on ICD-10 criteria. Psychosom. Res. 2000, 48, 555–560, doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(00)00095-7.
  43. Flemons, W.W.; Whitelaw, W.A.; Brant, R.; Remmers, J.E. Likelihood ratios for a sleep apnea clinical prediction rule. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1994, 150, 1279–1285, doi:10.1164/ajrccm.150.5.7952553.
  44. Netzer, N.C.; Stoohs, R.A.; Netzer, C.M.; Clark, K.; Strohl, K.P. Using the Berlin Questionnaire To Identify Patients at Risk for the Sleep Apnea Syndrome. Intern. Med. 1999, 131, 485–491, doi:10.7326/0003-4819-131-7-199910050-00002.
  45. Flo-Groeneboom, E.; Bjorvatn, B.; Folkard, S.; Moen, B.E.; Grønli, J.; Nordhus, I.H.; Pallesen, S. A Reliability and Validity Study of the Bergen Shift Work Sleep Questionnaire in Nurses Working Three-Shift Rotations. Int. 2012, 29, 937–946, doi:10.3109/07420528.2012.699120.
  46. Barger, L.K.; Ogeil, R.P.; Drake, C.L.; O’Brien, C.S.; Ng, K.T.; Rajaratnam, S.M.W. Validation of a Questionnaire to Screen for Shift Work Disorder. Sleep 2012, 35, 1693–1703, doi:10.5665/sleep.2246.
  47. Shrivastava, D.; Jung, S.; Saadat, M.; Sirohi, R.; Crewson, K. How to interpret the results of a sleep study. J. Community Hosp. Intern. Med. Perspect. 2014, 4, 24983, doi:10.3402/jchimp.v4.24983.
  48. Littner, M.R.; Kushida, C.; Wise, M.; Davila, D.G.; Morgenthaler, T.; Lee-Chiong, T.; Hirshkowitz, M.; Loube, D.L.; Bailey, D.; Berry, R.B.; et al. Practice Parameters for Clinical Use of the Multiple Sleep Latency Test and the Maintenance of Wakefulness Test. Sleep 2005, 28, 113–121, doi:10.1093/sleep/28.1.113.
  49. Mitterling, T.; Högl, B.; Schönwald, S.V.; Hackner, H.; Gabelia, D.; Biermayr, M.; Frauscher, B. Sleep and Respiration in 100 Healthy Caucasian Sleepers—A Polysomnographic Study According to American Academy of Sleep Medicine Standards. Sleep 2015, 38, 867–875, doi:10.5665/sleep.4730.
  50. Hohagen, F.; Käppler, C.; Schramm, E.; Riemann, D.; Weyerer, S.; Berger, M. Sleep onset insomnia, sleep maintaining in-somnia and insomnia with early morning awakening—Temporal stability of subtypes in a longitudinal study on general practice attenders. Sleep 1994, 17, 551–554.
  51. Reid, K.J. Assessment of Circadian Rhythms. Clin. 2019, 37, 505–526, doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2019.05.001.
  52. Stalder, T.; Kirschbaum, C.; Kudielka, B.M.; Adam, E.K.; Pruessner, J.C.; Wüst, S.; Dockray, S.; Smyth, N.; Evans, P.; Hellhammer, D.H.; et al. Assessment of the cortisol awakening response: Expert consensus guidelines. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2016, 63, 414–432, doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.010.
  53. Hunter, C.M.; Figueiro, M.G. Measuring Light at Night and Melatonin Levels in Shift Workers: A Review of the Literature. Res. Nurs. 2017, 19, 365–374, doi:10.1177/1099800417714069.
  54. Hofstra, W.A.; de Weerd, A.W. How to assess circadian rhythm in humans: A review of literature. Epilepsy Behav. 2008, 13, 438–444.
  55. Anderson, N.B. Levels of analysis in health science. A framework for integrating sociobehavioral and biomedical research. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1998, 840, 563–576, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09595.x.
  56. Clow, A.; Thorn, L.; Evans, P.; Hucklebridge, F. The Awakening Cortisol Response: Methodological Issues and Significance. Stress 2004, 7, 29–37, doi:10.1080/10253890410001667205.
  57. Weitzman, E.D.; Fukushima, D.; Nogeire, C.; Roffwarg, H.; Gallagher, T.F.; Hellman, L. Twenty-four Hour Pattern of the Episodic Secretion of Cortisol in Normal Subjects. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1971, 33, 14–22, doi:10.1210/jcem-33-1-14.
  58. Emet, M.; Ozcan, H.; Ozel, L.; Yayla, M.; Halici, Z.; Hacimuftuoglu, A. A Review of Melatonin, Its Receptors and Drugs. Eurasian J. Med. 2016, 48, 135–141, doi:10.5152/eurasianjmed.2015.0267.
  59. Zisapel, N. New perspectives on the role of melatonin in human sleep, circadian rhythms and their regulation. J. Pharmacol. 2018, 175, 3190–3199, doi:10.1111/bph.14116.
  60. Zisapel, N. Sleep and sleep disturbances: Biological basis and clinical implications. Mol. Life Sci. 2007, 64, 1174–1186, doi:10.1007/s00018-007-6529-9.
  61. Wetterberg, L. Melatonin in humans physiological and clinical studies. Neural Transm. Suppl. 1978, 13, 289–310.
  62. Pandi-Perumal, S.R.; Smits, M.; Spence, W.; Srinivasan, V.; Cardinali, D.P.; Lowe, A.D.; Kayumov, L. Dim light melatonin onset (DLMO): A tool for the analysis of circadian phase in human sleep and chronobiological disorders. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 31, 1–11, doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.06.020.
  63. Kräuchi, K. How is the circadian rhythm of core body temperature regulated? Auton. Res. 2002, 12, 147–149, doi:10.1007/s10286-002-0043-9.
  64. Krauchi, K.; Wirz-Justice, A. Circadian rhythm of heat production, heart rate, and skin and core temperature under un-masking conditions in men. Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 1994, 267, R819–R829, doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1994.267.3.r819.
  65. Reid, K.J. Assessment of Circadian Rhythms. Neurol. Clin. 2019, 37, 505–526, doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2019.05.001.
  66. Jang, T.-W.; Kim, H.; Kang, S.-H.; Choo, S.-H.; Lee, I.; Choi, K.-H. Circadian Rhythm of Wrist Temperature among Shift Workers in South Korea: A Prospective Observational Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1109, doi:10.3390/ijerph14101109.
  67. Bracci, M.; Ciarapica, V.; Copertaro, A.; Barbaresi, M.; Manzella, N.; Tomasetti, M.; Gaetani, S.; Monaco, F.; Amati, M.; Va-lentino, M.; et al. Peripheral Skin Temperature and Circadian Biological Clock in Shift Nurses after a Day off. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 623, doi:10.3390/ijms17050623.
  68. Molzof, H.E.; Prapanjaroensin, A.; Patel, V.H.; Mokashi, M.V.; Gamble, K.L.; Patrician, P.A. Misaligned core body tempera-ture rhythms impact cognitive performance of hospital shift work nurses. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 2019, 160, 151–159, doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2019.01.002.
  69. Krupp, L.B.; LaRocca, N.G.; Muir-Nash, J.; Steinberg, A.D. The fatigue severity scale. Application to patients with multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurol. 1989, 46, 1121–1123.
  70. Walters, A.S.; LeBrocq, C.; Dhar, A.; Hening, W.; Rosen, R.; Allen, R.P.; Trenkwalder, C. Validation of the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group rating scale for restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med. 2003, 4, 121–132, doi:10.1016/s1389-9457(02)00258-7.
  71. Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B. The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Gen. Intern. Med. 2001, 16, 606–613.
  72. Beck, A.T.; Ward, C.H.; Mendelson, M.; Mock, J.; Erbaugh, J. An Inventory for Measuring Depression. Gen. Psychiatry 1961, 4, 561–571, doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004.
  73. Spitzer, R.L.; Kroenke, K.; Williams, J.B.; Löwe, B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Intern. Med. 2006, 166, 1092–1097.
  74. Hobson, J.; Smedley, J. Fitness for Work: The Medical Aspects, 6th ed.; Oxford Medical Publications: Oxford, UK, 2019.
  75. Cowell, J.W. Guidelines for fitness-to-work examinations. Med. Assoc. J. 1986, 135, 985–988.
  76. Moore-Ede, M.C.; Richardson, G.S. Medical Implications of Shift-Work. Rev. Med. 1985, 36, 607–617, doi:10.1146/annurev.med.36.1.607.
  77. Reinberg, A.E.; Smolensky, M.H. Night and Shift Work and Transmeridian and Space Flights. In Biologic Rhythms in Clinical and Laboratory Medicine; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, German, 1992; pp. 243–255.
  78. Plain Language about Shiftwork; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
  79. Hittle, B.M.; Gillespie, G.L. Identifying shift worker chronotype: Implications for health. Health 2018, 56, 512–523, doi:10.2486/indhealth.2018-0018.
  80. Lovato, N.; Lack, L.; Ferguson, S.A.; Tremaine, R. The effects of a 30-min nap during night shift following a prophylactic sleep in the afternoon. Sleep Biol. Rhythm. 2009, 7, 34–42, doi:10.1111/j.1479-8425.2009.00382.x.
  81. Takeyama, H.; Matsumoto, S.; Murata, K.; Ebara, T.; Kubo, T.; Tachi, N.; Itani, T. Effects of the length and timing of nighttime naps on task performance and physiological function. Rev. Saúde Pública 2004, 38, 32–37, doi:10.1590/s0034-89102004000700006.
  82. Sallinen, M.; Harma, M.; Akerstedt, T.; Rosa, R.; Lillqvist, O. Promoting alertness with a short nap during a night shift. J. Sleep Res. 1998, 7, 240–247, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.1998.00121.x.
  83. Signal, T.L.; Gander, P.H.; Anderson, H.; Brash, S. Scheduled napping as a countermeasure to sleepiness in air traffic control-lers. J. Sleep Res. 2009, 18, 11–19, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00702.x.
  84. Smith-Coggins, R.; Howard, S.K.; Mac, D.T.; Wang, C.; Kwan, S.; Rosekind, M.R.; Sowb, Y.; Balise, R.; Levis, J.; Gaba, D.M. Improving Alertness and Performance in Emergency Department Physicians and Nurses: The Use of Planned Naps. Ann. Emerg. Med. 2006, 48, 596–604.e3, doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.02.005.
  85. Smith, S.S.; Kilby, S.; Jorgensen, G.; Douglas, J.A. Napping and nightshift work: Effects of a short nap on psychomotor vigi-lance and subjective sleepiness in health workers. Sleep Biol. Rhythm. 2007, 5, 117–125, doi:10.1111/j.1479-8425.2007.00261.x.
  86. Purnell, M.T.; Feyer, A.-M.; Herbison, G.P. The impact of a nap opportunity during the night shift on the performance and alertness of 12-h shift workers. J. Sleep Res. 2002, 11, 219–227, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.2002.00309.x.
  87. Ferrara, M.; De Gennaro, L. The sleep inertia phenomenon during the sleep-wake transition: Theoretical and operational issues. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 2000, 71, 843–848.
  88. Carskadon, M.A.; Dement, W.C. Sleep studies on a 90-minute day. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1975, 39, 145–155, doi:10.1016/0013-4694(75)90004-8.
  89. Bonnet, M.H. Dealing with shift work: Physical fitness, temperature, and napping. Work Stress 1990, 4, 261–274, doi:10.1080/02678379008256988.
  90. Gillberg, M. The effects of two alternative timings of a one-hour nap on early morning performance. Biol. Psychol. 1984, 19, 45–54, doi:10.1016/0301-0511(84)90009-7.
  91. Dinges, D.F.; Orne, M.T.; Whitehouse, W.G.; Orne, E.C. Temporal placement of a nap for alertness: Contributions of circadian phase and prior wakefulness. Sleep 1987, 10, 313–329.
  92. Nicholson, A.N.; Pascoe, P.A.; Roehrs, T.; Roth, T.; Spencer, M.B.; Stone, B.M.; Zorick, F. Sustained performance with short evening and morning sleeps. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 1985, 56, 105–114.
  93. Bonnet, M.H. Performance and Sleepiness as a Function of Frequency and Placement of Sleep Disruption. Psychophysiology 1986, 23, 263–271, doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1986.tb00630.x.
  94. Eastman, C.I. Circadian rhythms and bright light: Recommendations for shift work. Work Stress 1990, 4, 245–260, doi:10.1080/02678379008256987.
  95. Eastman, C.I. High-intensity light for circadian adaptation to a 12-h shift of the sleep schedule. Am. J. Physiol. Content 1992, 263, 428–436.
  96. Arendt, J.; Deacon, S., Treatment of circadian rhythm disorders—Melatonin. Chronobiol. Int. 1997, 14, 185–204.
  97. Cajochen, C.; Kräuchi, K.; Wirz-Justice, A. Role of Melatonin in the Regulation of Human Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. J. Neuroendocr. 2003, 15, 432–437, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.00989.x.
  98. Lewy, A.J.; Ahmed, S.; Sack, R.L. Phase shifting the human circadian clock using melatonin. Behav. Brain Res. 1995, 73, 131–134, doi:10.1016/0166-4328(96)00084-8.
  99. Zhdanova, I.V.; Lynch, H.J.; Wurtman, R.J. Melatonin: A sleep-promoting hormone. Sleep 1997, 20, 899–907, doi:10.1093/sleep/20.10.899.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback