You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Urban Green Spaces: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Lily Guo and Version 1 by Teodoro Semeraro.

n the context of urban land-use growth and the consequent impacts on the environment, green spaces provide ecosystem services for human health. The ecosystem services concept synthesises human–environmental interactions through a series of combined components of biodiversity and abiotic elements, linking ecological processes and functions. The concept of green infrastructure (GI) in the urban context emphasises the quality and quantity of urban and peri-urban green spaces and natural areas.

  • urban green roofs
  • community gardens
  • Urban ecology
  • Urban planning
  • ecosystem services
  • green infrastructure
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Seto, K.; Shepherd, M.J. Global urban land-use trends and climate impacts. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2009, 1, 89–95, doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2009.07.012.
  2. Semeraro, T.; Aretano, R.; Pomes, A.; Del Giudice, C.; Nigro, D. Planning ground based utility scale solar energy as Green Infrastructure to enhance ecosystem services. Energy Policy 2018, 117, 218–227, doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.01.050.
  3. The World Bank. Urban Population. Available Online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS (accessed on 19 July 2020).
  4. United Nations. The World´s Cities in 2018. Available online: https://www.un.org/en/events/citiesday/assets/pdf/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf (accessed on 19 July 2020).
  5. Suzuki, H.; Dastur, A.; Moffatt, S.; Yabuki, N.; Maruyama, H. Eco2 Cities. Ecological Cities as Economic Cities; World Bank Publications, Washington DC: 2009.
  6. Benedict, M.A.; McMahon, E.T. Green infrastructure: Smart conservation for the 21st century. Renew. Resour. J. 2002, 20, 12–17.
  7. Lafortezza, R.; Davies, C.; Sanesi, G.; Konijnendijk, C. Green Infrastructure as a tool to support spatial planning in European urban regions. iForest 2013, 6, 102–108, doi:10.3832/ifor0723-006.
  8. Oijstaeijen, W.V.; Van Passel, S.; Cools, J. Urban green infrastructure: A review on valuation toolkits from an urban planning perspective. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 267, 110603, doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110603.
  9. Semeraro, T.; Aretano, R.; Barca, A.; Pomes, A.; Del Giudice, C.; Gatto, E.; Lenucci, M.; Buccolieri, R.; Emmanuel, R.; Gao, Z.; et al. A Conceptual Framework to Design Green Infrastructure: Ecosystem Services as an Opportunity for Creating Shared Value in Ground Photovoltaic Systems. Land 2020, 9, 238, doi:10.3390/land9080238.
  10. Vartholomaios, A.; Kalogirou, N.; Athanassiou, E.; Papadopoulou, M. The green space factor as a tool for regulating the urban microclimate in vegetation-deprived Greek cities. In Proceedings of the International Conference on “Changing Cities”: Spatial, Morphological, Formal & Socio-Economic Dimensions, Skiathos Island, Greece, 18–21 June 2013, doi:10.13140/2.1.1598.8484.
  11. Anguluri, R.; Narayanan, P. Role of green space in urban planning: Outlook towards smart cities. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 25, 58–65, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2017.04.007.
  12. World Health Organisation (WHO). Regional Office for Europe. Urban Green Spaces: A Brief for Action. Available online: https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/342289/Urban-Green-Spaces_EN_WHO_web3.pdf%3Fua=1 (accessed on 29 July 2020).
  13. Grimmond, C.S.B.; King, T.S.; Cropley, F.D.; Nowak, D.; Souch, C. Local scale fluxes of carbon dioxide in urban environments: Methodological challenges and results from Chicago. Environ. Pollut. 2002, 116, S243–S254, doi:10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00256-1.
  14. Grimm, N.B.; Faeth, S.H.; Golubiewski, N.E.; Redman, C.L.; Wu, J.G.; Bai, X.M.; Briggs, J.M. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 2008, 319, 756–760, doi:10.1126/science.1150195.
  15. Schlesinger, W.H. On the fate of anthropogenic nitrogen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 203–208, doi:10.1073/pnas.0810193105.
  16. Trenberth, K.E.; Jones, P.D.; Ambenje, P.; Bojariu, R.; Easterling, D.; Tank, A.K.; Parker, D.; Rahimzadeh, F.; Renwick, J.A.; Rusticucci, M.; et al. Observations: Surface and atmospheric climate change. In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis; In Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M., Miller. H.L., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007; pp. 237–336.
  17. Harlan, S.L.; Ruddel, D. Climate change and health in cities: Impacts of heat and air pollution and potential co-benefits from mitigation and adaptation. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2011, 3, 126–134, doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2011.01.001.
  18. Pascal, M.; Corso, M.; Chanel, O.; Declercq, C.; Badaloni, G.; Henschel, S.; Meister, K.; Haluza, D.; Olmedo, P.M.; Medina, S. Assessing the public health impacts of urban air pollution in 25 European cities: Results of the Aphekom project. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 449, 390–400, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.077.
  19. Hidalgo, J.; Masson, V.; Baklanov, A.; Pigeon, G.; Gimenoa, L. Advances in urban climate modeling: Trends and directions in climate research. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1146, 354–374.
  20. Oke, T.R. Boundary Layer Climates; Methuen; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 1987.
  21. Ward, K.; Lauf, S.; Kleinschmit, B.; Endlicher, W. Heat waves and urban heat islands in Europe: A review of relevant drivers. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 527–539, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.119.
  22. Rizwan, A.M.; Dennis, L.Y.C.; Liu, C. A review on the generation, determination and mitigation of Urban Heat Island. J. Environ. Sci. 2008, 20, 120–128, doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(08)60019-4.
  23. Qiu, G.; Li, H.; Zhang, Q.; Chen, W.; Liang, X.; Li, X. Effects of Evapotranspiration on Mitigation of Urban Temperature by Vegetation and Urban Agriculture. J. Integr. Agric. 2013, 12, 1307–1315, doi:10.1016/S2095-3119(13)60543-2.
  24. Hirano, Y.; Yoshida, Y. Assessing the effects of CO2 reduction strategies on heat islands in urban areas. Sust. Cities Soc. 2016, 26, 383–392, doi:10.1016/j.scs.2016.04.018.
  25. Gartland, L. Heat Islands: Understanding and Mitigating Heat in Urban Areas; Routledge Press: London, UK, 2010.
  26. Hsieh, C.M.; Huang, H.C. Mitigating urban heat islands: A method to identify potential wind corridor for cooling and ventilation. Comp. Environ. Urban Syst. 2016, 57, 130–143, doi:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2016.02.005.
  27. Knowlton, K.; Rotkin-Ellman, M.; King, G.; Margolis, G.; Smith, D.; Solomon, G.; Trent, R.; English, P. The 2006 heat wave: Impacts on hospitalizations and emergency department visits. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 61–67, doi:10.1289/ehp.11594.
  28. Buchin, O.; Hoelscher, M.T.; Meier, F.; Nehls, T.; Ziegler, F. Evaluation of the health-risk reduction potential of countermeasures to urban heat islands. Energy Build. 2016, 114, 27–37, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.06.038.
  29. Walter, L.F.; Icaza, L.E.; Neht, A.; Klavins, M.; Morgan, E.A. Coping with the impacts of urban heat islands. A literature-based study on understanding urban heat vulnerability and the need for resilience in cities in a global climate change context. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 171, 1140–1149, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.086.
  30. Stathopoulou, E.; Mihalakakou, G.; Santamouris, M.; Bagiorgas, H.S. On the impact of temperature on tropospheric ozone concentration levels in urban environments. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 2008, 117, 227–236, doi:10.1007/s12040-008-0027-9.
  31. Santamouris, M. Regulating the damaged thermostat of the cities—Status, impacts and mitigation challenges. Energy Build. 2015, 91, 43–56, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.01.027.
  32. Field, C.B.; Barros, V.; Stocker, T.F.; Qin, D.; Dokken, D.J.; Ebi, K.L.; Mastrandrea, M.D.; Mach, K.J.; Plattner, G.-K.; Allen, S.K.; et al. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaption. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012.
  33. Weng, Q. Remote sensing of impervious surfaces in the urban areas: Requirements, methods, and trends. Remote Sens. Environ. 2012, 117, 34–49, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2011.02.030, 2012.
  34. United Nations. Prototype Global Sustainable Development Report; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development: New York, NY, USA, 2014. Available online: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/globalsdreport/ (accessed on 19 July 2020).
  35. Kaspersen, P.S.; Ravn, N.H.; Nielsen, K.A.; Madsen, H.; Drewa, M. Comparison of the impacts of urban development and climate change on exposing European cities to pluvial flooding. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2017, 21, 4131–4147, doi:10.5194/hess-21-4131-2017.
  36. United Nations. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights; Population Division, United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs: 2014. New York. Available online: https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014-Report.pdf (accessed on 26 July 2020).
  37. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current State and Trends; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
  38. Garcia-Nieto, A.P.; Geijzendorffer, I.R.; Barò, F.; Roche, P.K.; Bondeau, A.; Cramer, W. Impacts of urbanization around Mediterranean cities: Changes in ecosystem service supply. Ecol. Indic. 2018, 91, 589–606, doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.03.082.
  39. Bowler, D.E.; Buyung-Ali, L.; Knight, T.M.; Pullin, A.S. Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landsc. Urb. Plan. 2010, 97, 147–155, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.05.006.
  40. Maggiore, G.; Semeraro, T.; Aretano, R.; De Bellis, L.; Luvisi, A. GIS Analysis of Land-Use Change in Threatened Landscapes by Xylella fastidiosa. Sustainability 2019, 11, 253, doi:10.3390/su11010253.
  41. Smith, R.M.; Thompson, K.; Hodgson, J.G.; Warren, P.H.; Gaston, K.J. Urban domestic gardens (IX): Composition and richness of the vascular plant flora, and implications for native biodiversity. Biol. Conserv. 2006, 129, 312–322, doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.045.
  42. Kendal, D.; Williams, N.S.; Williams, K.J. Drivers of diversity and tree cover in gardens, parks and streetscapes in an Australian city. Urban For. Urban Green. 2012, 11, 257–265, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2012.03.005.
  43. Hadavi, S.; Kaplan, R.; Hunter, M.C.R. Environmental affordances: A practical approach for design of nearby outdoor settings in urban residential areas. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 134, 19–32, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.001.
  44. Farahani, L.M.; Maller, C. Perceptions and Preferences of Urban Greenspaces: A Literature Review and Framework for Policy and Practice. Landsc. Online 2018, 61, 1–22, doi:10.3097/LO.201861.
  45. Salbitano, F.; Borelli, S.; Conigliaro, M.; Chen, Y. Guidelines on Urban and Peri-Urban Forestry; FAO Forestry Paper No.178; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2016.
  46. de Groot, R.; Fisher, B.; Christie, M.; Aronson, J.; Braat, L.; Gowdy, J.; Haines-Young, R.; Maltby, E.; Neuville, A.; Polasky, S.; et al. Integrating the ecological and economic dimensions in biodiversity and ecosystem service valuation. In The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Ecological and Economic Foundations; Kumar, P., Ed.; Routledge Press: London, UK, 2010; pp. 9–40.
  47. de Groot, R.; Brander, L.; van der Ploeg, S.; Costanza, R.; Bernard, F.; Braat, L.; Christie, M.; Crossman, N.; Ghermandi, A.; Hein, L.; et al. Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosyst. Serv. 2012, 1, 50–61, doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.07.005.
  48. Schwartz, M.W.; Hiers, J.K.; Davis, F.W.; Garfin, G.M.; Jackson, S.T.; Terando, C.J.; Woodhouse, C.A.; Morelli, T.L.; Williamson, M.A.; Brunson, M.W. Developing a translational ecology workforce. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2017, 15, 587–596, doi:10.1002/fee.1732.
  49. Roy, S.; Byrne, J.; Pickering, C. A systematic quantitative review of urban tree benefits, costs, and assessment methods across cities in different climatic zones. Urban For. Urban Green. 2012, 11, 351–363, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2012.06.006.
  50. Livesley, S.J.; McPherson, E.G.; Calfapietra, C. The urban forest and ecosystem services: Impacts on urban water, heat, and pollution cycles at the tree, street, and city scale. J. Environ. Qual. 2016, 45, 119–124, doi:10.2134/jeq2015.11.0567.
  51. Salmond, J.A.; Tadaki, M.; Vardoulakis, S.; Arbuthnott, K.; Coutts, A.; Demuzere, M.; Dirks, K.N.; Heaviside, C.; Lim, S.; Macintyre, H.; et al. Health and climate related ecosystem services provided by street trees in the urban environment. Environ. Health 2016, 15, 36, doi:10.1186/s12940-016-0103-6.
  52. Santamouris, M.; Ban-Weiss, G.; Osmond, P.; Paolini, R.; Synnefa, A.; Cartalis, C.; Muscio, A.; Zinzi, M.; Morakinyo, T.E.; Ng, E.; et al. Progress in urban greenery mitigation science–assessment methodologies advanced technologies and impact on cities. J. Civ. Eng. Manag. 2018, 24, 638–671, doi:10.3846/jcem.2018.6604.
  53. Tratalos, J.; Fuller, R.A.; Warren, P.H.; Davies, R.G.; Gaston, K.J. Urban form, biodiversity potential and ecosystem services. Landsc. Urb. Plan. 2007, 83, 308–317, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.05.003.
  54. La Rosa, D.; Spyra, M.; Inostranza, L. Indicators of Cultural Ecosystem Services for urban planning: A review. Ecol. Indic. 2016, 61, 74–89, doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.04.028.
  55. Semeraro, T.; Aretano, R.; Pomes, A. Green Roof Technology as a Sustainable Strategy to Improve Water Urban Availability. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 471, 092065, doi:10.3390/ijerph16152642.
  56. de Groot, R.S. Function-analysis and valuation as a tool to assess land use conflicts in planning for sustainable, multi-functional landscapes. Landsc. Urb. Plan. 2006, 75, 175–186.
  57. Sandifer, P.; Sutton-Grier, A.E.; Ward, B.P. Exploring connections among nature, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human health and well-being: Opportunities to enhance health and biodiversity conservation. Ecosyst. Serv. 2015, 12, 1–15, doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.12.007.
  58. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). TEEB Manual for Cities: Ecosystem Services in Urban Management. 2011. Available online: www.teebweb.org (accessed on 01 July 2020).
  59. Sieber, J.; Pons, M. Assessment of Urban Ecosystem Services using Ecosystem Services Reviews and GIS-based Tools. Procedia Eng. 2015, 115, 53–60, doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.07.354.
  60. Bernstein, A.S. Biological diversity and human health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2014, 35, 153–167, doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182348.
  61. Miller, M.S.; Montalto, F.A. Stakeholder perceptions of the ecosystem services provided by Green Infrastructure in New York City. Ecosyst. Serv. 2019, 37, 100928, doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.100928.
  62. Lin, B.L.; Egerer, M.H. Global social and environmental change drives the management and delivery of ecosystem services from urban gardens: A case study from Central Coast, California. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2020, 60, 102006, doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.102006.
  63. Ramyar, R.; Saeedi, S.; Bryant, M.; Davatgar, A.; Hedjri, G.M. Ecosystem services mapping for green infrastructure planning–The case of Tehran. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 703, 135466, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135466.
  64. Hyun, K.J. Impacts of urban greenspace on offsetting carbon emissions for middle Korea. J. Environm. Manag. 2002, 64, 115–126, doi:10.1006/jema.2001.0491.
  65. Pope, C.A., 3rd; Essati, M.; Dockery, D.W. Fine-particulate air pollution and life expectancy in the United States. N. Engl. J. Medic. 2009, 360, 376–386, doi:10.1056/NEJMsa0805646.
  66. Setälä, H.; Viippola, V.; Rantalainen, A.L.; Pennanen, A.; Yli-Pelkonen, V. Does urban vegetation mitigate air pollution in northern conditions? Environ. Pollut. 2013, 183, 104–112, doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2012.11.010.
  67. Hunt, A.; Watkiss, P. Climate change impacts and adaptation in cities: A review of the literature. Clim. Chang. 2011, 104, 13–49, doi:10.1007/s10584-010-9975-6.
  68. Tian, Y.; Wu, H.; Zhang, G.; Wang, L.; Zheng, D.; Li, S. Perceptions of ecosystem services, disservices and willingness-to-pay for urban green space conservation. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 260, 110140, doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110140.
  69. Song, P.; Kim, G.; Mayer, A.; He, R.; Tian, G. Assessing the Ecosystem Services of Various Types of Urban Green Spaces Based on i-Tree Eco. Sustainability 2020, 12, 1630, doi:10.3390/su12041630.
  70. Chen, S.; Wang, Y.; Ni, Z.; Zhang, X.; Xia, B. Benefits of the ecosystem services provided by urban green infrastructures: Differences between perception and measurements. Urban For. Urban Green. 2020, 54, 126774, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126774.
  71. Majekodunmi, M.; Emmanuel, R.; Jafry, T. A spatial exploration of deprivation and green infrastructure ecosystem services within Glasgow city. Urban For. Urban Green. 2020, 52, 126698, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126698.
  72. Semeraro, T.; Gatto, E.; Buccolieri, R.; Vergine, M.; Gao, Z.; De Bellis, L.; Luvisi, A. Changes in Olive Urban Forests Infected by Xylella fastidiosa: Impact on Microclimate and Social Health in urban areas. Int. J. Environm. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2642, doi:10.1088/1757-899X/471/9/092065.
  73. Havenith, G.; Luttikholt, V.G.M.; Vrijkotte, T.G.M. The relative influence of body characteristics on humid heat stress response. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 1995, 70, 270–279, doi:10.1007/BF00238575.
  74. Curriero, F.C.; Heiner, K.S.; Samet, J.M.; Zeger, S.L.; Strug, L.; Patz, J.A. Temperature and mortality in 11 cities of the eastern United States. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2002, 155, 80–97, doi:10.1093/aje/155.1.80.
  75. Bentley, M. Healthy Cities, local environmental action and climate change. Health Promot. Int. 2007, 22, 246–253, doi:10.1093/heapro/dam013.
  76. Thorsson, S.; Honjo, T.; Lindberg, F.; Eliasson, I.; Lim, E.M. Thermal comfort and outdoor activity in Japanese urban public places. Environ. Behav. 2007, 39, 660–684, doi:10.1177/0013916506294937.
  77. McMichael, A.J.; Wilkinson, P.; Kovats, S.; Pattenden, S.; Hajat, S.; Armstrong, B.; Vajanapoom, N.; Niciu, E.M.; Mahomed, H.; Kingkeow, C.; et al. International study of temperature, heat and urban mortality: The ‘ISOTHURM’ project. Int. J. Epidem. 2008, 37, 1121–1131, doi:10.1093/ije/dyn086.
  78. O’Neill, M.S.; Ebi, K.L. Temperature extremes and health: Impacts of climate variability and change in the United States. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2009, 51, 13–25, doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e318173e122.
  79. Gatto, E.; Buccolieri, R.; Aarrevaara, E.; Ippolito, F.; Emmanuel, R.; Perronace, L.; Santiago, J.L. Impact of Urban Vegetation on Outdoor Thermal Comfort: Comparison between a Mediterranean City (Lecce, Italy) and a Northern European City (Lahti, Finland). Forests 2020, 11, 228, doi:10.3390/f11020228.
  80. Butler, D.; Davies, J.W. Urban Drainage; Spon Press: London, NY, USA, 2011.
  81. Hall, J.; Arheimer, B.; Borga, M.; Brázdil, R.; Claps, P.; Kiss, A.; Kjeldsen, T.R.; Kriauciuniene, J.; Kundzewicz, Z.W.; Lang, M.; et al. Understanding flood regime changes in Europe: A state-of-the-art assessment. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2014, 18, 2735–2772, doi:10.5194/hess-18-2735-2014.
  82. Thompson, C.W.; Roe, J.; Aspinall, P.; Mitchell, R.; Clow, A.; Miller, D. More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 105, 221–229, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.015.
  83. Lindemann-Matthies, P.; Junge, X.; Matthies, D. The influence of plant diversity on people’s perception and aesthetic appreciation of grassland vegetation. Biol. Conserv. 2010, 143, 195–202, doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.10.003.
  84. Park, B.-J.; Furuya, K.; Kasetani, T.; Takayama, N.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Relationship between psychological responses and physical environments in forest settings. Landsc. Urb. Plan. 2011, 102, 24–32, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.03.005.
  85. Semeraro, T.; Zaccarelli, N.; Lara, A.; Sergi-Cucinelli, F.; Aretano, R. A Bottom-Up and Top-Down Participatory Approach to Planning and Designing Local Urban Development: Evidence from an Urban University Center. Land 2020, 9, 98, doi:10.3390/land9040098.
  86. Jennings, V.; Bamkole, O. The Relationship between Social Cohesion and Urban Green Space: An Avenue for Health Promotion. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 452, doi:10.3390/ijerph16030452.
  87. Nuissl, H.; Haase, D.; Lanendorf, M.; Wittemer, H. Environmental impact assessment of urban land use transitions—A context-sensitive approach. Land Use Policy 2009, 26, 414–424, doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.05.006.
  88. Perone, P.; Cocozza, C.; Cherubini, P.; Bachmann, O.; Guillong, M.; Lasserre, B.; Marchetti, M.; Tognetti, R. Oak tree-rings record spatial-temporal pollution trends from different sources in Terni (Central Italy). Environ. Poll. 2018, 233, 278–289, doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.062.
  89. Alterio, E.; Rizzi, A.; Chirici, G.; Cocozza, C.; Sitzia, T. Preserving air pollution forest archives accessible through dendrochemistry. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 264, 110462.
  90. Semeraro, T.; Luvisi, A.; De Bellis, L.; Aretano, R.; Sacchelli, S.; Chirici, G.; Marchetti, M.; Cocozza, C. Dendrochemistry: Ecosystem services perspectives for urban biomonitoring. Front. Environ. Sci. 2020, 8, 558893, doi:10.3389/fenvs.2020.558893.
  91. Lambin, E.F.; Meyfroidt, P. Land use transitions: Socio-ecological feedback versus socio-economic change. Land Use Policy 2010, 27, 108–118, doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.09.003.
  92. Kourdounouli, C.; Jönsson, A.M. Urban ecosystem conditions and eco system services—A comparison between large urban zones and city cores in the EU. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2019, 63, 798–817, doi:10.1080/09640568.2019.1613966.
  93. Carter, T.; Butler, C. Ecological impacts of replacing traditional roofs with green roofs in two urban areas. Cities Environ. 2008, 1, 17, doi:10.15365/cate.1292008.
  94. Department of Planning and Local Government. Rain Gardens, Green Roof Sand Infiltration Systems. In Water Sensitive Urban Design Technical Manual; Government of South Australia, Ed.; Government of South Australia: Adelaide, Australian, 2010; pp. 12–21.
  95. GSA. The Benefits and Challenges of Green Roofs on Public and Commercial Buildings. A Report of the United States General Service Administration, US GSA. 2011. Available online: https://www.gsa.gov/cdnstatic/The_Benefits_and_Challenges_of_Green_Roofs_on_Public_and_Commercial_Buildings.pdf (accessed on 10 July 2020).
  96. Dunnett, N.; Kingsbury, N. Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls; Timber Press: Portland, OR, USA, 2004.
  97. Dunnett, N.; Kingsbury, N. Planting options for extensive and semi-extensive green roofs. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities Conference, Portland, OR, USA, 2–4 June 2004.
  98. Wong, J.K.W.; Lau, L.S-K. From the ‘urban heat island’ to the ‘green island’? A preliminary investigation into the potential of retrofitting green roofs in Mongkok district of Hong Kong. Habitat Int. 2013, 39, 25–35, doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.10.005.
  99. Korola, E.; Shushunova, N. Benefits of A Modular Green Roof Technology. Procedia Eng. 2016, 161, 1820–1826, doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.673.
  100. Shafique, M.; Kim, R.; Rafiq, M. Green roof benefits, opportunities and challenges—A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 90, 757–773, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.006.
  101. Toronto Food Policy Council (TFPC). Feeding the City from the Back Forty: A Commercial Food Production Plan for the City of Toronto; Toronto Public Library: Toronto, ON, Canada, 1999.
  102. Sheung, L.L. Rooftop Garden: Planting Seeds of Service, Teacher’s Network. Available online: http://www.teachnet. org/docs/Network/Project/Boston/Sheung/ (accessed on 26 July 2020).
  103. Nowak, M. Urban Agriculture on the Rooftop. Senior honors Thesis, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA, 2004.
  104. Huang, X. Investigation of roof agriculture development. Res. Environm. Sci. 2010, 9, 316–317.
  105. Whittinghill, L.J.; Rowe, D.B. The role of green roof technology in urban agriculture. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 2012, 27, 314–322, doi:10.1017/S174217051100038X.
  106. Langemeyer, J.; Wedgwood, D.; McPhearsonc, T.; Baró, F.; Madsende, A.L.; Barton, D.N. Creating urban green infrastructure where it is needed—A spatial ecosystem service-based decision analysis of green roofs in Barcelona. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 707, 135487, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135487.
  107. Phoomirat, R.; Disyatat, N.R.; Park, T.Y.; Lee, D.K.; Dumrongrojwatthana, P. Rapid assessment checklist for green roof ecosystem services in Bangkok. Ecol. Process. 2020, 9, 19, doi:10.1186/s13717-020-00222-z.
  108. Getter, K.L.; Rowe, D.B. The role of extensive green roofs in sustainable development. HortScience 2006, 41, 1276–1285, doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.41.5.1276.
  109. Berardi, U.; Hoseini, A.H.G.; Hoseini, A.G. State-of-the-art analysis of the environmental benefits of green roofs. Appl. Energy 2014, 115, 411–428, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.10.047.
  110. Chow, M.F.; Bakar, F.A. A Review on the Development and Challenges of Green Roof Systems in Malaysia. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. Int. J. Archit. Environ. Eng. 2016, 10, 16–20.
  111. Lazzarin, R.M.; Castellotti, F.; Busato, F. Experimental measurements and numerical modeling of a green roof. Energy Build. 2005, 37, 1260–1267, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.02.001.
  112. Carter, T.; Keeler, A. Life-cycle cost-benefit analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems. J. Environ. Manag. 2008, 87, 350–363, doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.01.024.
  113. Sproul, J.; Wan, M.P.; Mandel, B.H.; Rosenfeld, A.H. Economic comparison of white, green, and black flat roofs in the United States. Energy Build. 2014, 71, 20–27, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.11.058.
  114. Sanchez, L.; Reames, T.G. Cooling Detroit: A socio-spatial analysis of equity in green roofs as an urban heat island mitigation strategy. Urban For. Urban Green. 2019, 44, 126331, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2019.04.014.
  115. Liu, K.; Baskaran, B. Thermal performance of green roofs through field evaluation. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. In Proceedings of the 1st North American Green Roof Conferences: Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities, Chicago, IL, USA, 29–30 May 2003; pp. 273–282.
  116. Harzmann, U. German green roofs. In Proceedings of the Annual Green Roof Construction Conference, Chicago, IL, USA, 01 July 2003; Available online at https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/20398172 (Accessed on 10 July 2020).
  117. Moran, A. A North Carolina Field Study to Evaluate Greenroof Runoff Quantity, Runoff Quality, and Plant Growth. Master’s Thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA, 2004.
  118. Mentens, J.; Raes, D.; Hermy, M. Green roofs as a tool for solving the rainwater runoff problem in the urbanized 21st century? Landsc. Urb. Plan. 2006, 77, 217–226, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.02.010.
  119. Van Woert, N.D.; Rowe, D.B.; Andresen, J.A.; Rugh, C.L.; Fernandez, R.T.; Xiao, L. Green roof Stormwater Retention: Effects of Roof Surface, Slope, and Media Depth. J. Environ. Qual. 2005, 34, 1036–1044, doi:10.2134/jeq2004.0364.
  120. Carter, T.; Rasmussen, T. Hydrologic behavior of vegetated roofs. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2006, 42, 1261–1274.
  121. Stovin, V. The potential of green roofs to manage Urban Stormwater. Water Environ. J. 2010, 24, 192–199, doi:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2009.00174.x.
  122. Brenneisen, S. The benefits of biodiversity from green roofs: Key design consequences. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. In Proceedings of the 1st North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities, Chicago, IL, USA, 29–30 May 2003; pp. 323–329.
  123. Brenneisen, S. Biodiversity strategy on green roofs. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. In Proceedings of the 3rd North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities, Washington, DC, USA, 4–6 May 2005; pp. 449–456.
  124. Coffman, R.; Davis, G. Insect and avian fauna presence on the Ford assembly plant ecoroof. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. In Proceedings of the 3rd North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities; Washington, DC, USA, 4–6 May 2005; pp. 457–468.
  125. Rafida, S.; Rahman, A.; Ahmad, H. Green Roof As Urban Antidote: A Review on Aesthetic, Environmental, Economic and Social Benefits. In Proceedings of the 6th South East Asian Technical Consortium in King Mongkut University of Technology Thonbur, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-23 October 2012; p. 4.
  126. Hui, S.C.M.; Chan, S.C. Integration of green roof and solar photovoltaic systems. In Proceedings of the Joint Symposium 2011: Integrated Building Design in the New Era of Sustainability, Hong Kong, 22 November 2011; pp. 1.1–1.10.
  127. Chemisana, D.; Lamnatou, C. Photovoltaic-green roofs: An experimental evaluation of system performance. Appl. Energy 2014, 119, 246–256, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.12.027.
  128. Lamnatou, C.; Chemisana, D. A critical analysis of factors affecting photovoltaic green roof performance. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 43, 264–280, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.048.
  129. Shafique, M.; Kim, R.; Lee, D. The potential of green-blue roof to manage storm water in urban areas. Nat. Environ. Poll. Technol. 2016, 15, 715–719.
  130. Shafique, M.; Lee, D.; Kim, R. A field study to evaluate runoff quantity from blue roof and green blue roof in an urban area. Int. J. Control. Autom. 2016, 9, 59–68, doi:10.14257/ijca.2016.9.8.07.
  131. Luo, T.; Young, R.; Reig, P. Aqueduct Projected Water Stress Rankings; Technical Note; World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2015. Available online: http://www.wri.org/publication/aqueduct-projected-water-stress-country-rankings (accessed on 26 July 2020).
  132. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Profitability and Sustainability of Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2007.
  133. Satterthwaite, D.; McGranahan, G.; Tacoli, C. Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2010, 365, 2809–2820, doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0136.
  134. Martellozzo, F.; Landry, J.S.; Plouffe, D.; Seufert, V.; Rowhani, P.; Ramankutty, N. Urban agriculture: A global analysis of the space constraint to meet urban vegetable demand. Environ. Res. Lett. 2014, 9, 1–8, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/6/064025.
  135. Egerer, M.; Fairbairn, M. Gated gardens: Effects of urbanization on community formation and commons management in community gardens. Geoforum 2018, 96, 61–69, doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.07.014.
  136. Koopmans, M.; Keech, D.; Sovova, L.; Reed, M. Urban agriculture and place-making: Narratives about place and space in Ghent, Brno and Bristol New frontiers for urban community garden. Morav. Geogr. Rep. 2017, 25, 154–165, doi:10.1515/mgr-2017-0014.
  137. Martin, G.; Clift, R.; Chistie, I. Urban Cultivation and Its Contributions to Sustainability: Nibbles of Food but Oodles of Social Capital. Sustainability 2016, 8, 409, doi:10.3390/su8050409.
  138. Bousse, Y.S. Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect with an Intensive Green Roof during Summer in Reading, UK. Master’s Thesis, Reading University, Reading, UK, 2009.
  139. Sanye-Mengual, E.; Oliver-Sola, J.; Anton, A.; Montero, J.I.; Rieradevail, J. Environmental assessment of urban horticulture structures: Implementing rooftop greenhouses in Mediterranean cities. In Proceedings of the LCA Food Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA, 8–10 October 2014.
  140. De Zeeuw, H. Cities, climate change and urban agriculture. Urban Agric. Mag. 2011, 25, 39–42.
  141. Levkoe, C.Z. Learning democracy through food justice movements. Agric. Human Values 2006, 23, 89–98, doi:10.1007/s10460-005-5871-5.
  142. Lawson, L.J. City Bountiful: A Century of Community Gardening in America; University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA, 2005.
  143. Ellis, R. Sowing the seeds of democracy: Community gardening in Parkdale, Toronto. Master’s Thesis, University of Western Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada, 2010.
  144. Miedema, J.M.; Desjardins, E.; Marshall, K. ‘Not Just a Passing Fancy’: How community gardens contribute to healthy and inclusive neighbourhoods. In Waterloo Region Public Health; AgriUrban, Quèbec, 2013. Available online: http://chd.region.waterloo.on.ca/en/researchResourcesPublications/resources/Community_Gardening_Storytelling_Project.pdf (accessed on 20 June 2020).
  145. Buchmann, C. Cuban Home Gardens and Their Role in Social-Ecological Resilience. Hum. Ecol. 2009, 37, 705, doi:10.1007/s10745-009-9283-9.
  146. Mares, T.M.; Pena, D.G. Environmental and food justice. In Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability; Alkon, A.H., Agyeman, J., Eds.; MIT Press: Boston, MA, USA, 2011; pp. 197–219.
  147. White, M.M. D-town farm: African American resistance to food insecurity and the transformation of Detroit. Environ. Pract. 2011, 13, 406–417, doi:10.1017/S1466046611000408.
  148. Gray, L.; Guzman, P.; Glowa, K.M.; Drevno, A.G. Can home gardens scale up into movements for social change? The role of home gardens in providing food security and community change in San Jose, California. Local Environ. Int. J. Justice Sustain. 2013, doi:10.1080/13549839.2013.792048.
  149. Taylor, J.R.; Lovell, S.T. Urban home food gardens in the Global North: Research traditions and future directions. Agric. Hum. Values 2013, 31, 285–305, doi:10.1007/s10460-013-9475-1.
  150. Specht, K.; Siebert, R.; Hartmann, I.; Freisinger, U.B.; Sawicka, M.; Werner, A.; Thomaier, S.; Henckel, D.; Walk, H.; Dierich, A. Urban agriculture of the future: An overview of sustainability aspects of food production in and on buildings. Agric. Hum. Values 2014, 31, 33–51, doi:10.1007/s10460-013-9448-4.
  151. Ellingsen, E.; Despommier, D. The Vertical Farm—The origin of a 21st century Architectural Typology. CTBUH J. 2008, 3, 26–34.
  152. Gorgolewski, M.; J. Komisar, J.; Nasr, J. Carrot City: Creating places for Urban Agriculture; The Monacelli Press: New York, NY, USA, 2011.
  153. Komisar, J.; Nasr, J.; Gorgolewski, M. Designing for food and agriculture: Recent explorations at Ryerson University. Open House Int. 2009, 34, 61–70.
  154. Bohn, K.; Viljoen, A. The edible city: Envisioning the Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPUL). Field J. 2011, 4, 149–161.
  155. Draper, C.; Freedman, D. Review and Analysis of the Benefits, Purposes, and Motivations Associated with Community Gardening in the United States. J. Community Pract. 2010, 18, 458–492, doi:10.1080/10705422.2010.519682.
  156. Kortright, R.; Wakefield, S. Edible backyards: A qualitative study of household food growing and its contributions to food security. Agric. Hum. Values 2011, 28, 39–53, doi:10.1007/s10460-009-9254-1.
  157. Hodgson, K.; Campbell, M.C.; Bailkey, M. Urban Agriculture: Growing Healthy Sustainable Places. Am. Plan. Assoc. Plan. Advis. Serv. Rep. 2011, 563, 1–34.
  158. Reynolds, K. Expanding technical assistance for urban agriculture: Best practices for extension services in California and beyond. J. Agric. Food Syst. Community Dev. 2011, 1, 1–20, doi:10.5304/jafscd.2011.013.013.
  159. Guitart, D.; Pickering, C.; Byrne, J. Past results and future directions in urban community gardens research. Urban For. Urban Green. 2012, 11, 364–373, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2012.06.007.
  160. Guitart, D.A.; Pickering, C.M.; Byrne, J.A. Color me healthy: Food diversity in school community gardens in two rapidly urbanising Australian cities. Health Place 2014 26, 110–117, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.12.014.
  161. Poulsen, M.; Hulland, K.R.S.; Gulas, C.A.; Pham, H.; Dalglish, S.L.; Wilkinson, R.K.; Winch, P.J. Growing an Urban Oasis: A Qualitative Study of the Perceived Benefits of Community Gardening in Baltimore, Maryland. Cult. Agric. Food Environ. 2014, 36, 69–82, doi:10.1111/cuag.12035.
  162. Napawan, N.C. Complexity in urban agriculture: The role of landscape typologies in promoting urban agriculture’s growth. J. Urban. Int. Res. Placemaking Urban Sustain. 2014, 9, 1–20, doi:10.1080/17549175.2014.950317.
  163. Specht, K.; Siebert, R.; Hartmann, I.; Freisinger, U.B.; Sawicka, M.; Werner, A.; Thomaier, S.; Henckel, D.; Walk, H.; Dierich, A. Urban agriculture of the future: An overview of sustainability aspects of food production in and on buildings. Agric. Hum. Values 2014, 31, 33–51, doi:10.1007/s10460-013-9448-4.
  164. Lal, R. Home gardening and urban agriculture for advancing food and nutritional security in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Food Sec. 2020, 12, 871–876, doi:10.1007/s12571-020-01058-3.
  165. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Twenty Sixth Report: The Urban Environment; The Stationery Office (TSO): London, UK, 2007.
  166. Rees, A.; Melix, B. Landscape Discourse and Community Garden Design in a Midsized Southern City. Stud. Hist. Gard. Des. Landsc. 2019, 39, 90–104, doi:10.1080/14601176.2018.1512797.
  167. Rees, A.; Melix, B. Landscape Discourse and Community Garden Design in a Midsized Southern City. Stud. Hist. Gard. Des. Landsc. 2019, 39, 90–104, doi:10.1080/14601176.2018.1512797.
  168. Komisar, J.; Nasr, J.; Gorgolewski, M. Designing for food and agriculture: Recent explorations at Ryerson University. Open House Int. 2009, 34, 61–70.
  169. Bohn, K.; Viljoen, A. The edible city: Envisioning the Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPUL). Field J. 2011, 4, 149–161.
  170. Ellingsen, E.; Despommier, D. The Vertical Farm—The origin of a 21st century Architectural Typology. CTBUH J. 2008, 3, 26–34.
  171. Gorgolewski, M.; J. Komisar, J.; Nasr, J. Carrot City: Creating places for Urban Agriculture; The Monacelli Press: New York, NY, USA, 2011.
More
Academic Video Service