Bergamot Oil: Botany, Production, Pharmacology: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Nora Tang and Version 1 by Marco Valussi.

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) is the result of the mechanical manipulation (cold pressing) of the exocarp (flavedo) of the hesperidium of Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Bergamot Group (synonym Citrus × bergamia Risso & Poit.), resulting in the bursting of the oil cavities embedded in the flavedo and the release of their contents. It is chemically dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons (i.e., limonene), but with significant percentages of oxygenated monoterpenes (i.e., linalyl acetate) and of non-volatile oxygen heterocyclic compounds (i.e., bergapten).

  • bergamot
  • citrus
  • essential oil
  • production
  • review
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Zhong, G.; Nicolosi, E. Citrus Origin, Diffusion, and Economic Importance. In The Citrus Genome; Gentile, A., La Malfa, S., Deng, Z., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 5–21, ISBN 9783030153083.
  2. Calabrese, F. La Favolosa Storia Degli Agrumi; L’Epos: Palermo, Italy, 1998.
  3. Inglese, P.; Sortino, G. Citrus History, Taxonomy, Breeding, and Fruit Quality. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2019; ISBN 9780199389414.
  4. Wu, G.A.; Terol, J.; Ibanez, V.; López-García, A.; Pérez-Román, E.; Borredá, C.; Domingo, C.; Tadeo, F.R.; Carbonell-Caballero, J.; Alonso, R.; et al. Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus. Nature 2018, 554, 311–316, doi:10.1038/nature25447.
  5. Dugo, G.; Mondello, L. Citrus Oils: Composition, Advanced Analytical Techniques, Contaminants, and Biological Activity; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010; ISBN 9781439800294.
  6. Distefano, G.; Las Casas, G.; Deng, X.; Chai, L. Citrus Reproductive Biology from Flowering to Fruiting. In The Citrus Genome; Gentile, A., La Malfa, S., Deng, Z., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 167–176, ISBN 9783030153083.
  7. Chase, M.W.; Christenhusz, M.J.M.; Fay, M.F.; Byng, J.W.; Judd, W.S.; Soltis, D.E.; Mabberley, D.J.; Sennikov, A.N.; Soltis, P.S.; Stevens, P.F. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 2016, 181, 1–20, doi:10.1111/boj.12385.
  8. Thorne, R.F. The classification and geography of the flowering plants: Dicotyledons of the class Angiospermae. Bot. Rev. 2000, 66, 441–647, doi:10.1007/BF02869011.
  9. Swingle, W.T. The botany of Citrus and its wild relations. Citrus Ind. 1967, 1, 190–422.
  10. Samuel, R.; Ehrendorfer, F.; Chase, M.W.; Greger, H. Phylogenetic analyses of Aurantioideae (Rutaceae) based on non-coding plastid DNA sequences and phytochemical features. Plant Biol. 2001, 3, 77–87.
  11. Dearaujo, E. What is Citrus? Taxonomic implications from a study of cp-DNA evolution in the tribe Citreae (Rutaceae subfamily Aurantioideae). Org. Divers. Evol. 2003, 3, 55–62.
  12. Bayer, R.J.; Mabberley, D.J.; Morton, C.; Miller, C.H.; Sharma, I.K.; Pfeil, B.E.; Rich, S.; Hitchcock, R.; Sykes, S. A molecular phylogeny of the orange subfamily (Rutaceae: Aurantioideae) using nine cpDNA sequences. Am. J. Bot. 2009, 96, 668–685, doi:10.3732/ajb.0800341.
  13. Dugo, G.; Di Giacomo, A. Citrus: The Genus Citrus; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2002; ISBN 9780203216613.
  14. Goldschmidt, E.E. The Citrus Genome: Past, Present and Future. In The Citrus Genome; Gentile, A., La Malfa, S., Deng, Z., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 1–3, ISBN 9783030153083.
  15. Velasco, R.; Licciardello, C. A genealogy of the Citrus family. Nat. Biotechnol. 2014, 32, 640–642.
  16. Carbonell-Caballero, J.; Alonso, R.; Ibañez, V.; Terol, J.; Talon, M.; Dopazo, J. A Phylogenetic Analysis of 34 Chloroplast Genomes Elucidates the Relationships between Wild and Domestic Species within the Genus Citrus. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2015, 32, 2015–2035, doi:10.1093/molbev/msv082.
  17. Wu, G.A.; Prochnik, S.; Jenkins, J.; Salse, J.; Hellsten, U.; Murat, F.; Perrier, X.; Ruiz, M.; Scalabrin, S.; Terol, J.; et al. Sequencing of diverse mandarin, pummelo and orange genomes reveals complex history of admixture during Citrus domestication. Nat. Biotechnol. 2014, 32, 656–662.
  18. Curk, F.; Ollitrault, F.; Garcia-Lor, A.; Luro, F.; Navarro, L.; Ollitrault, P. Phylogenetic origin of limes and lemons revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers. Ann. Bot. 2016, 117, 565–583, doi:10.1093/aob/mcw005.
  19. Schwartz, T.; Nylinder, S.; Ramadugu, C.; Antonelli, A.; Pfeil, B.E. The Origin of Oranges: A Multi-locus Phylogeny of Rutaceae Subfamily Aurantioideae. Syst. Bot. 2016, 40, 1053–1062, doi:10.1600/036364415X690067.
  20. Hodgson, R.W. Horticultural varieties of Citrus. In The Citrus Industry; Reuther, W., Webber, H.J., Batchelor, L.D., Eds.; Volume I.; University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA, 1967; pp. 431–592.
  21. Köhler, H.A. Köhler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen. Arch. Pharm. 1887, 225, 276–276.
  22. Dugo, G.; Bonaccorsi, I. Citrus Bergamia: Bergamot and its Derivatives; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2013; ISBN 9781439862278.
  23. Uzun, A.; Yesiloglu, T.; Aka-Kacar, Y.; Tuzcu, O.; Gulsen, O. Genetic diversity and relationships within Citrus and related genera based on sequence related amplified polymorphism markers (SRAPs). Sci. Hortic. 2009, 121, 306–312.
  24. Federici, C.T.; Roose, M.L.; Scora, R.W. RFLP analysis of the origin of Citrus bergamia, Citrus jambhiri, and Citrus limonia. Proc. First Int. Citrus Biotechnol. Symp. 1998, 535, 55–64.
  25. Nicolosi, E.; Deng, Z.N.; Gentile, A.; La Malfa, S.; Continella, G.; Tribulato, E. Citrus phylogeny and genetic origin of important species as investigated by molecular markers. Theor. Appl. Genet. 2000, 100, 1155–1166, doi:10.1007/s001220051419.
  26. Li, X.; Xie, R.; Lu, Z.; Zhou, Z. The origin of cultivated Citrus as inferred from internal transcribed spacer and chloroplast DNA sequence and amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprints. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 2010, 135, 341–350.
  27. Maruca, G.; Laghetti, G.; Mafrica, R.; Turiano, D.; Hammer, K. The Fascinating History of Bergamot (Citrus Bergamia Risso & Poiteau), the Exclusive Essence of Calabria: A Review. JESE-A 2017, 6, doi:10.17265/2162-5298/2017.01.003.
  28. Guala, G. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS); National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution: Washington, DC, USA, 2019.
  29. Ipni. The International Plant Names Index; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Richmond, UK, 2012.
  30. Tropicos. Available online: http://www.tropicos.org (accessed on 6 November 2020).
  31. Govaerts, R.H.A.; Faden, R.B. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Richmond, UK, 2016.
  32. Search Accessions GRIN-Global. Available online: https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/search (accessed on 6 November 2020).
  33. Mabberley, D.J. Mabberley’s Plant-Book, 3rd ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2008.
  34. Fatta Del Bosco, S.; Abbate, L.; Mercati, F.; Napoli, E.; Ruberto, G. Essential Oils in Citrus. In The Citrus Genome; Gentile, A., La Malfa, S., Deng, Z., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 211–223, ISBN 9783030153083.
  35. Rapisarda, A.; Caruso, C.; Iauk, L.; Ragusa, S. Applicazione dell’analisi di immagine nello studio delle ghiandole oleifere dei frutti di alcune specie del genere Citrus. Essenze Deriv. Agrum. 1996, 66, 5–12.
  36. Svoboda, K.P.; Svoboda, T.G.; Syred, A.D. Secretory Structures of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants: A Review and Atlas of Micrographs; Microscopix Publications: Knighton, Wales, 2000.
  37. Amato, A.; Castellotti, T.; Gaudio, F.; Gaudio, G.; Lovecchio, R.; Pupo D’Andrea, M.R.; Peluso, R. L’agricoltura nella Calabria in cifre 2012; INEA–Istituto Nazionale di Economia Agraria: Roma, Italy, 2013. Available online: http://www.inea.it/pubbl/ (accessed on 6 November 2020).
  38. Giacomo, A.D. Bergamot in the calabrian economy and the role of consorzio del bergamotto. In Citrus Bergamia; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2013; pp. 74–85, ISBN 9780429165887.
  39. Ciani, F.; Huggard, J.; Zervas, T. The Resilience of Bergamot Farmers to Economic Shocks in the Reggio Calabria Province. Reg. Mag. 2016, 302, 23–25, doi:10.1080/13673882.2016.11742705.
  40. Nesci, F.S.; Sapone, N. Bergamot–A Green and Multifunctional Asset Exclusive from the Province of Reggio Calabria. AEF 2014, 11, 376–379, doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AEF.11.376.
  41. Guenther, E. The Individual Essential Oils of the Plant Families Rutaceae and Labiatae; D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1950; Volume 3.
  42. Jin, W.F.; Shen, L.H.; Ren, J.H.; Jin, J.M.; Shen, Y.Y.; Zhu, J.Q.; Liang, Z.S.; Yang, D.F. Research progress on bergamot essential oil and its related product development. Zhong Cao Yao 2016, 47, 857–861.
  43. Yang, H.; Zhou, A.; Lin, M.; Xie, W.; Chen, S.; Chen, H. Research progress of extraction methods and pharmacological effects of bergamot essential oil. J. Food Saf. Qual. 2013, 4, 1347–1352.
  44. Dugo, P.; Russo, M. The Oxygen Heterocyclic Components of Citrus Essential Oils. In Citrus Oils: Composition, Advanced Analytical Techniques, Contaminants, and Biological Activity; Dugo, G., Mondello, L., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010; pp. 405–444, ISBN 9781439800294.
  45. Hunter, M. Essential Oils: Art, Agriculture, Science, Industry and Entrepreneurship; Nova Science Publishers, Inc.: Hauppauge, NY, USA, 2010.
  46. Di Giacomo, A.; Di Giacomo, G. Essential oil production. In Citrus: The Genus Citrus; Dugo, G., di Giacomo, A., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2002; pp. 114–147, ISBN 9780203216613.
  47. Chen, M.-H.; Huang, T.-C. Volatile and Nonvolatile Constituents and Antioxidant Capacity of Oleoresins in Three Taiwan Citrus Varieties as Determined by Supercritical Fluid Extraction. Molecules 2016, 21, 1735, doi:10.3390/molecules21121735.
  48. Sawamura, M. Citrus Essential Oils: Flavor and Fragrance; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011; ISBN 9781118074381.
  49. Dugo, G.; Bartle, K.D.; Stagno D’alcontres, I.; Trozzi, A.; Verzera, A. Advanced analytical techniques for the analysis of Citrus essential oils. Part 3. Oxygen heterocyclic compounds: HPLC, HPLC/MS, OPLC, SFC, Fast HPLC analysis. Essenze Deriv. Agrum. 1999, 69, 251–283.
  50. Poiana, M.; Rosa Fresa, R.; Mincione, B. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of bergamot peels. Extraction kinetics of oil and its components. Flavour Fragr. J. 1999, 14, 358–366.
  51. Figoli, A.; Donato, L.; Carnevale, R.; Tundis, R.; Statti, G.A.; Menichini, F.; Drioli, E. Bergamot essential oil extraction by pervaporation. Desalination 2006, 193, 160–165.
  52. Verzera, A.; Lamonica, G.; Mondello, L.; Trozzi, A.; Dugo, G. The composition of bergamot oil. Perfum. Flavor. 1996, 21, 19–34.
  53. Navarra, M.; Mannucci, C.; Delbò, M.; Calapai, G. Citrus bergamia essential oil: From basic research to clinical application. Front. Pharmacol. 2015, 6, 36, doi:10.3389/fphar.2015.00036.
  54. Sawamura, M.; Onishi, Y.; Ikemoto, J.; Tu, N.T.M.; Phi, N.T.L. Characteristic odour components of bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) essential oil. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006, 21, 609–615, doi:10.1002/ffj.1604.
  55. González-Mas, M.C.; Rambla, J.L.; López-Gresa, M.P.; Blázquez, M.A.; Granell, A. Volatile Compounds in Citrus Essential Oils: A Comprehensive Review. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 12, doi:10.3389/fpls.2019.00012.
  56. Di Giacomo, A.; Mincione, B. Gli Olii Essenziali Agrumari in Italia. Sottoprogetto 4; Laruffa: Reggio Calabria, Italy, 1994; ISBN 9788872210734.
  57. Mangiola, C.; Postorino, E.; Gionfriddo, F.; Catalfamo, M.; Manganaro, R.; Calabro, G. Evaluation of the genuineness of cold-pressed bergamot oil. Perfum. Flavorist 2009, 34, 26–32.
  58. Mosandl, A.; Juchelka, D. Advances in the Authenticity Assessment of Citrus Oils. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1997, 9, 5–12.
  59. Bonaccorsi, I.; Sciarrone, D.; Cotroneo, A.; Mondello, L.; Dugo, P.; Dugo, G. Enantiomeric distribution of key volatile components in Citrus essential oils. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2011, 21, 841–849.
  60. Verzera, A.; La Rosa, G.; Zappala, M.; Cotroneo, A. Essential oil composition of different cultivars of bergamot grown in Sicily. Ital. J. Food Sci. 2000, 12, 493–502.
  61. Burfield, T. Natural aromatic materials–Odours & origins. Int. J. Aromather. 2001, 11, 47–48, doi:10.1016/S0962-4562(01)80070-9.
  62. Arctander, S. Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin: A Perfumer’s and Flavorist’s Practical Description of Available Materials, Their Origin, Production and Processing, Appearance, Odor and Flavor Type, Evaluation, Application and Availability with Brief Notes on Their Main Constituents, Replacements and Most Common Adulterants; Allured Publishing: Carol Stream, IL, USA, 1994.
  63. Dosoky, N.S.; Setzer, W.N. Biological Activities and Safety of Citrus spp. Essential Oils. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 1966, doi:10.3390/ijms19071966.
  64. Scuteri, D.; Rombolá, L.; Tridico, L.; Mizoguchi, H.; Watanabe, C.; Sakurada, T.; Sakurada, S.; Corasaniti, M.T.; Bagetta, G.; Morrone, L.A. Neuropharmacological Properties of the Essential Oil of Bergamot for the Clinical Management of Pain-Related BPSDs. Curr. Med. Chem. 2019, 26, 3764–3774, doi:10.2174/0929867325666180307115546.
  65. Rombolà, L.; Amantea, D.; Russo, R.; Adornetto, A.; Berliocchi, L.; Tridico, L.; Corasaniti, M.T.; Sakurada, S.; Sakurada, T.; Bagetta, G.; et al. Rational Basis for the Use of Bergamot Essential Oil in Complementary Medicine to Treat Chronic Pain. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2016, 16, 721–728, doi:10.2174/1389557516666160321113913.
  66. Scuteri, D.; Rombolà, L.; Morrone, L.A.; Bagetta, G.; Sakurada, S.; Sakurada, T.; Tonin, P.; Corasaniti, M.T. Neuropharmacology of the Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Dementia and Role of Pain: Essential Oil of Bergamot as a Novel Therapeutic Approach. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 3327, doi:10.3390/ijms20133327.
  67. Bagetta, G.; Morrone, L.A.; Rombolà, L.; Amantea, D.; Russo, R.; Berliocchi, L.; Sakurada, S.; Sakurada, T.; Rotiroti, D.; Corasaniti, M.T. Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot. Fitoterapia 2010, 81, 453–461, doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.01.013.
  68. Rombolà, L.; Scuteri, D.; Adornetto, A.; Straface, M.; Sakurada, T.; Sakurada, S.; Mizoguchi, H.; Corasaniti, M.T.; Bagetta, G.; Tonin, P.; et al. Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil Are Insensitive to Flumazenil in Rats. Evid. Based. Complement. Alternat. Med. 2019, 2019, 2156873, doi:10.1155/2019/2156873.
  69. Bagetta, G.; Berliocchi, L.; Rombolà, L.; Morrone, L.A.; Sakurada, T.; Corasaniti, M.T.; Sakurada, S. Preclinical evidence for rational use of bergamot essential oil in pain trials. Planta Med. 2015, 81, doi:10.1055/s-0035-1565356.
  70. Scuteri, D.; Crudo, M.; Rombolà, L.; Watanabe, C.; Mizoguchi, H.; Sakurada, S.; Sakurada, T.; Greco, R.; Corasaniti, M.T.; Morrone, L.A.; et al. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice. Fitoterapia 2018, 129, 20–24, doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2018.06.007.
  71. Rombolà, L.; Tridico, L.; Scuteri, D.; Sakurada, T.; Sakurada, S.; Mizoguchi, H.; Avato, P.; Corasaniti, M.T.; Bagetta, G.; Morrone, L.A. Bergamot Essential Oil Attenuates Anxiety-Like Behaviour in Rats. Molecules 2017, 22, 614, doi:10.3390/molecules22040614.
  72. Donelli, D.; Antonelli, M.; Bellinazzi, C.; Gensini, G.F.; Firenzuoli, F. Effects of lavender on anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Phytomedicine 2019, 65, 153099, doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153099.
  73. Antonelli, M.; Donelli, D.; Barbieri, G.; Valussi, M.; Maggini, V.; Firenzuoli, F. Forest Volatile Organic Compounds and Their Effects on Human Health: A State-of-the-Art Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6506, doi:10.3390/ijerph17186506.
  74. Ferlazzo, N.; Cirmi, S.; Calapai, G.; Ventura-Spagnolo, E.; Gangemi, S.; Navarra, M. Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Citrus bergamia Derivatives: Where Do We Stand? Molecules 2016, 21, 1273, doi:10.3390/molecules21101273.
  75. Cirmi, S.; Bisignano, C.; Mandalari, G.; Navarra, M. Anti-infective potential of Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau (bergamot) derivatives: A systematic review. Phytother. Res. 2016, 30, 1404–1411, doi:10.1002/ptr.5646.
  76. Perna, S.; Spadaccini, D.; Botteri, L.; Girometta, C.; Riva, A.; Allegrini, P.; Petrangolini, G.; Infantino, V.; Rondanelli, M. Efficacy of bergamot: From anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative mechanisms to clinical applications as preventive agent for cardiovascular morbidity, skin diseases, and mood alterations. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 7, 369–384, doi:10.1002/fsn3.903.
  77. Mannucci, C.; Navarra, M.; Calapai, F.; Squeri, R.; Gangemi, S.; Calapai, G. Clinical Pharmacology of Citrus bergamia: A Systematic Review. Phytother. Res. 2017, 31, 27–39, doi:10.1002/ptr.5734.
  78. Kavanagh, B.P. The GRADE system for rating clinical guidelines. PLoS Med. 2009, 6, e1000094, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000094.
  79. European Medicines Agency Assessment Report on Citrus Bergamia Risso et Poiteau, Aetheroleum. Available online: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/draft-assessment-report-citrus-bergamia-risso-et-poiteau-aetheroleum_en.pdf (accessed on 24 November 2020).
  80. Zaynoun, S.T.; Johnson, B.E.; Frain-Bell, W. A study of oil of bergamot and its importance as a phototoxic agent. II. Factors which affect the phototoxic reaction induced by bergamot oil and psoralen derivatives. Contact Dermat. 1977, 3, 225–239, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1977.tb03667.x.
  81. Dubertret, L.; Serraf-Tircazes, D.; Jeanmougin, M.; Morlière, P.; Averbeck, D.; Young, A.R. Phototoxic properties of perfumes containing bergamot oil on human skin: Photoprotective effect of UVA and UVB sunscreens. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 1990, 7, 251–259, doi:10.1016/1011-1344(90)85160-X.
  82. Tisserand, R.; Young, R. Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals; Churchill Livingstone: London, UK; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013; ISBN 9780443062414.
  83. Berliocchi, L.; Ciociaro, A.; Russo, R.; Cassiano, M.G.V.; Blandini, F.; Rotiroti, D.; Morrone, L.A.; Corasaniti, M.T. Toxic profile of bergamot essential oil on survival and proliferation of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2011, 49, 2780–2792, doi:10.1016/j.fct.2011.08.017.
  84. Kaddu, S.; Kerl, H.; Wolf, P. Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2001, 45, 458–461, doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.116226.
  85. Finsterer, J. Earl Grey tea intoxication. Lancet 2002, 359, 1484, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08436-2.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback