The development of bio-based adhesives as sustainable alternatives to synthetic formulations presents a significant opportunity for advancing environmental sustainability in packaging applications. This research aimed to develop and evaluate a bio-based adhesive derived from bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), aloe vera and its mixtures as a potential replacement for commercial synthetic adhesives. Aloe vera, selected for its polysaccharide-rich composition, served as a natural polymeric matrix, while BNC contributed reinforcing properties. The adhesive formulations, with and without BNC, were compared to a commercial adhesive to assess their mechanical performance. T-peel and shear tests were conducted on smooth and rough paper substrates to evaluate adhesive strength. The bio-based adhesive incorporating BNC demonstrated superior shear and peel strength on rough substrates due to enhanced mechanical interlocking within the fibrous structure of paper, whereas performance on smooth surfaces was hindered by uneven BNC distribution, reducing adhesive-substrate interaction. Although the commercial adhesive achieved higher absolute maximum force values, the bio-based formulation exhibited comparable mechanical stability under specific conditions. These findings underscore the influence of substrate properties and application methods on adhesive performance, highlighting the potential of bio-based adhesives in packaging applications and the need for further formulation optimization to fully realize their advantages over traditional synthetic adhesives.
- bio-based adhesives
- polymers
- packaging applications
- sustainable materials
- circularity
1. Introduction
Adhesives are indispensable materials that underpin a vast array of industrial applications by enabling the formation of reliable, durable joints critical to product functionality, structural integrity, and longevity. Among these applications, the packaging sector is one of the largest consumers of adhesives, demanding materials that not only exhibit exceptional mechanical robustness but also meet increasingly stringent environmental and sustainability criteria [[1], [2], [3]]. Historically, synthetic adhesives—predominantly petrochemical-derived polymers—have dominated this sector due to their superior adhesion performance, ease of processing, and cost-effectiveness. However, these materials pose significant environmental concerns related to their non-renewable origin, resistance to biodegradation, and potential ecological toxicity upon disposal or incineration, contributing to pollution and resource depletion. The urgent global imperative to mitigate environmental impact and promote circular economy principles has catalyzed a paradigm shift toward the development of sustainable, bio-based adhesive alternatives [[4]]. Renewable polymers derived from biomass offer promising pathways to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and decrease the carbon footprint of adhesive formulations. Within this context, bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a highly pure microbial polysaccharide synthesized extracellularly by bacteria such as Gluconacetobacter xylinus, has emerged as an exceptional candidate for bio-adhesive reinforcement [[5]]. BNC is characterized by its nanoscale fibrillar network, which imparts remarkable tensile strength, high crystallinity, flexibility, and biodegradability. Furthermore, its capacity to form strong hydrogen-bonded networks enhances interfacial adhesion within polymeric matrices, thereby improving the mechanical and functional properties of bio-based adhesives [[5]]. Complementing BNC, aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) is a succulent plant whose mucilaginous gel is rich in bioactive polysaccharides, which exhibit intrinsic adhesive and film-forming properties [[6]]. The gel’s viscous nature and biocompatibility make aloe vera a valuable natural polymeric matrix for adhesive systems. The strategic integration of BNC and aloe vera in adhesive formulations leverages the synergistic interplay between nanofibrillar reinforcement and polysaccharide adhesion, potentially yielding bio-based adhesives with competitive performance metrics relative to their synthetic counterparts [[7]]. The goal of this study was to develop and systematically characterize a bio-based adhesive formulated from BNC and aloe vera, aiming to deliver mechanical performance and adhesion properties comparable to commercial synthetic adhesives while offering enhanced environmental sustainability. The research focused on optimizing adhesive formulations, evaluating their mechanical and interfacial properties on diverse substrates, and assessing their potential as sustainable alternatives for industrial applications, particularly in the packaging sector. Adhesive performance was systematically evaluated against a benchmark commercial synthetic adhesive through mechanical testing on substrates varying in surface roughness and physicochemical properties. This research directly addresses the rising regulatory and market-driven mandates—embodied by policies such as the European Green Deal—that promote sustainable material usage, reduction of environmental impact, and advancement of circular economy strategies. The principal objectives of this work were as follows: (1) to conduct an exhaustive market and literature review of adhesive technologies relevant to packaging; (2) to optimize the cost-efficient biosynthesis of BNC using agro-industrial by-products and alternative nutrient sources; (3) to develop and optimize aloe vera–BNC composite adhesive formulations; (4) to perform mechanical and adhesion strength testing on relevant substrates; and (5) to benchmark these bio-based adhesives against commercially available synthetic adhesives to assess their industrial viability.
2. Sustainable Nanocellulose-Aloe Adhesive Development for Packaging Applications
The study encountered limitations, such as cohesive failure during shear testing, suggesting that future evaluations could benefit from adjusting adhesive application areas or using substrates with higher cohesive strength to more accurately assess performance. Although the results highlight the potential of BNC-based adhesives as sustainable alternatives to conventional adhesives, their effectiveness was highly dependent on the homogeneity of the adhesive mixture. In this study, BNC dispersion was achieved through basic mechanical stirring, which likely limited fibre distribution and contributed to variability in adhesive properties. Future work should therefore explore advanced dispersion methods, such as ultrasonication or high-shear mixing, to enhance homogeneity and reduce batch-to-batch variability. Additionally, optimising formulations by testing varying BNC concentrations and potential additives will be essential to balance performance, cost, and processability. The long-term stability and environmental durability of aloe vera-based adhesives remain critical considerations, given their hydrophilic nature and sensitivity to humidity, temperature, and microbial exposure. Future studies should include degradation and shelf-life analyses to evaluate durability and environmental resistance, particularly for practical applications in food and biodegradable packaging. Moreover, economic feasibility and scalability assessments are necessary to support the industrial implementation of BNC-based adhesives. This study establishes a clear correlation between cardboard surface properties, adhesive behaviour, and mechanical joint performance, providing valuable insights for advancing bio-based adhesive development. With continued refinement and comprehensive evaluation, BNC-enhanced adhesives have the potential to match or surpass conventional adhesives while offering notable environmental benefits, including improved sustainability and recyclability.
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