1. Introduction

The Iranian Constitutional Revolution during the Qajar period succeeded in compelling Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar to sign the Constitutional Decree. With the issuance of this decree on 14 Mordad 1285 AP / 5 August 1906 AD, a new political actor known as the National Consultative Assembly (Majles-e Shorā-ye Mellī) emerged in Iran alongside the traditional institution of monarchy. From the formation of the First National Consultative Assembly until the deposition of the Qajar dynasty by the Constituent Assembly in 1304 AP / 1925 AD, five parliamentary terms were convened in Iran. This entry provides an overview of the National Consultative Assemblies (Majles) of Iran during the Qajar dynasty, examining their formation, composition, and political processes from the Constitutional Revolution in 1285 AP / 1906 AD to the deposition of the Qajar dynasty in 1304 AP / 1925 AD. It discusses the five parliamentary terms, electoral procedures, major factions, legislative developments, and conflicts between constitutionalists and monarchists. The impact of internal disputes, foreign interventions, and global events such as World War I on the functioning and continuity of the Majles is also presented.

21. The First National Consultative Assembly

The elections for the National Consultative Assembly began in Shahrivar 1285 AP / September 1906 AD, and finally, on 14 Mehr 1285 AP / 7 October 1906 AD, the inauguration ceremony of the first Majles was held in the Golestan Palace. “At noon on 7 October 1906 the National Consultative Assembly was opened in Tehran” ^[1]. Mozaffar al-Din Shah signed the Constitution on 8 Dey 1285 AP / 14 Dhu al-Qi‘dah 1324 AH / 30 December 1906 AD, and died a few days later. “Most representatives of this period were from guilds, tradesmen, and merchants. However, the guilds and tradesmen were not members of important parliamentary commissions and often followed other groups without significantly influencing the legislative process. In contrast, merchants were among the influential elements of the Majles, with membership in various commissions, though they were largely conservative. Both groups sought the continuation of the landlord–peasant system and feared the deepening of the revolution. In the first three to four months, representatives connected to bureaucratic families, statesmen, aristocrats, notables, and large landowners dominated the Majles. Groupings were not based on formal political parties and evolved over time. Some were conservatives, while the radicals, known as the Liberals, constituted a minority of representatives” ^[2]. The Moderates, who formed the majority, were led by two wealthy merchants, Mohammad Ali Shālforūsh and Amin al-Zarb. While the Moderates were supported by the traditional middle class, the Liberals generally represented the intellectual class. Led by Taqizadeh from Tabriz and Yahya Eskandari from Tehran, they advocated extensive social, economic, and political reforms ^[3]. In the first Majles, a total of 156 representatives were elected, with 60 seats allocated to Tehran and 96 to other provinces ^[4]. During its term, nine cabinets were formed and introduced to the Majles ^[4]. As noted earlier, Mozaffar al-Din Shah died, and his son Mohammad Ali Mirza ascended the throne on 28 Dey 1285 AP / 19 January 1907 AD. In a symbolic move, without informing the Majles, he did not invite representatives to his coronation ceremony, which provoked their reaction ^[2]. The conflicts intensified to the point that eventually, on 22 Bahman 1285 AP / 1324 AH / 1907 AD, Mohammad Ali Shah issued a decree recognizing the constitutional nature of the Iranian government ^[2]. Tensions between Mohammad Ali Shah and the Majles escalated, particularly after the assassination attempt on him on 8 Esfand 1286 AP / 27 February 1908 AD, which set the stage for the attack on and dissolution of the first Majles. On Tuesday, 2 Tir 1287 AP / 23 June 1908 AD, Russian Colonel Liakhov led Cossack forces to bombard the Majles from Tupkhaneh Square. With the death, arrest, and flight of representatives and constitutionalists, the first Majles ended before completing its two-year term ^[4]. For about a year, conflicts ensued, a period known as the Lesser Autocracy (Estebdād-e Saghīr, 1287 AP / 1326 AH / 1908 AD – 1288 AP / 1327 AH / 1909 AD). During this time, constitutionalist and royalist forces once again confronted one another. Two groups, one from the north and another from the south, decided to fight against Mohammad Ali Shah.

32. The Second National Consultative Assembly

Constitutionalist forces entered Tehran in Tir 1288 AP / 1327 AH / 1909 AD. Five hundred individuals, including representatives of the dissolved Majles, Bakhtiari forces, other fighters, bazaaris, and court liberals, quickly gathered in Tehran and declared themselves the Supreme Assembly. Acting as a substitute for the National Consultative Assembly, this body deposed Mohammad Ali Shah, enthroned his twelve-year-old son Ahmad as king, and appointed the elderly Azod al-Molk, head of the Qajar tribe, as regent. The Supreme Assembly also approved a new electoral law that abolished class and occupational representation, reduced Tehran’s seats from 60 to 15, increased the provinces’ seats from 96 to 101, and allocated four seats to recognized religious minorities: one for Jews, one for Zoroastrians, and two for Christians (Assyrians and Armenians). This brought the total number of representatives to 120 ^[3]. The interregnum between the first and second Majles lasted nearly sixteen, or according to some accounts seventeen, months ^{[5] [4]}. The second Majles opened in Aban 1288 AP / Dhu al-Qi‘dah 1327 AH / November 1909 AD. “The Moderates were relatively in the majority while the Democrats were in the minority. Around the same time, as parliamentary elections were underway, several individuals established the Democrat Party of Iran. On the other side, conservatives united to form the Ejtama‘iyun E‘tedaliyun (E‘tedāliyūn). Several smaller parties also emerged, among them the (Taraqqi-khvāhān-e Jonub) and the (Ittifāq va Taraqqī), both of which gained relative importance. The main struggle occurred between the Democrats and the Moderates (E‘tedāliyūn). These two parties had different natures and were somewhat shaped along class lines. Many Democrats came from the urban middle strata, such as civil servants, police officers, teachers, and professionals. In contrast, the Moderates consisted of notables, aristocrats, princes, large landowners, bureaucrats, and clerics, with support from some merchants and guild leaders” ^[2]. Party rivalries in the second Majles resulted in the introduction of twelve different cabinets ^[4]. This Majles witnessed the increasing presence of clerics, civil servants, and landowners ^[4]. Among the Shia clerics who entered this Majles, five were charged with overseeing legislation to ensure no laws contradicted Islamic law. A decisive issue in this Majles was the hiring of the American financial mission led by Morgan Shuster ^[2]. Russian and British opposition to Shuster culminated in a Russian ultimatum, and disputes between the government and the Majles over this matter ultimately led Regent Nasir al-Molk to dissolve the Majles in 1290 AP / 1911 AD.

43. The Third National Consultative Assembly

The interregnum between the second and third Majles lasted nearly three years, during which time Nasir al-Molk governed the country. With Ahmad Shah coming of age and Nasir al-Molk’s departure, elections for the third term began, and the Majles convened in Azar 1293 AP / 1333 AH / 1914 AD ^[5]. The third Majles opened immediately after the outbreak of World War I. The representatives elected leaders from both Democrats and Moderates to the National Resistance Committee ^[3]. Research by the Majles Research Center shows that four political groups were present in the third Majles: Democrats, Moderates, the Religious Committee (Hey’at-e ‘Elmiye), and independents ^[5]. Compared to previous terms, the number of merchants and guild representatives decreased while the number of landowners and clerics increased ^[4]. The fate of this Majles was bound to the events of World War I. Although Iran declared neutrality, it was occupied, and with the emergence of the “Migration Movement” (Nehzat-e Mohājerat), most representatives left the capital. The Majles lost its quorum and was closed in Aban 1294 AP / November 1915 AD. In total, legislative activity lasted barely eleven months, and from 1294 to 1300 AP, the Majles remained in interregnum ^{[2] [6]}. The third Majles, therefore, lasted less than a year and achieved little ^[7]. During this time, Iran was occupied by British and Russian forces and deeply affected by the war.

54. The Fourth National Consultative Assembly

The fourth Majles began after a long and chaotic interregnum under unstable political conditions. Following nearly five years and seven months of suspension, it was inaugurated by Ahmad Shah Qajar on 1 Tir 1300 AP / 1339 AH / 1921 AD ^[5]. Conservatives held the majority in the fourth Majles. Interestingly, their success was the result of the electoral law passed during the tumultuous years of the third Majles, which granted voting rights to all men, including villagers, thereby unintentionally strengthening rural elites ^[3]. The minority party in this Majles was the Socialists ^[5]. This term of the Majles was deeply influenced by the coup of 1299 AP / 1921 AD, during which a military officer named Reza Khan (later founder of the Pahlavi dynasty) emerged as a powerful figure. At the same time, uprisings and movements spread across various parts of Iran. The fourth Majles completed its two-year term in Khordad 1302 AP / 1923 AD.

65. The Fifth National Consultative Assembly

After several months of suspension, the fifth Majles opened on 22 Bahman 1302 AP / 1342 AH / 1924 AD with a speech by Crown Prince Mohammad Hassan Mirza. The active factions in this Majles included Tajaddod (Renewal), led by Seyyed Mohammad Tadayyon, the Socialist faction, led by Soleiman Mirza, and the Reformist faction, led by Modarres ^[5]. The Renewal Party, which gained a majority in the fifth Majles with Reza Khan’s support, was composed of Western-educated youth who had previously backed the Democrats ^[3]. One of the major issues debated during this Majles was the proposal for establishing a republic. However, the more significant issue was the deposition of the Qajar dynasty and the establishment of a Constituent Assembly, which eventually, after several sessions in Azar 1304 AP, chose Reza Khan as the shah of the new Pahlavi dynasty. The fifth Majles completed its two-year term on 22 Bahman 1304 AP.