In the digital era, personalized education has become pivotal in transforming learning paradigms [1]. It transcends traditional, one-size-fits-all approaches, aiming instead to tailor the educational experience to individual learners’ needs, abilities, and interests. This shift is driven by the increasing recognition that learners are diverse regarding their academic abilities, learning styles, and motivational drivers. Digital technologies have catalyzed this transition, offering unprecedented opportunities for customized learning experiences [2]. Digital platforms, replete with rich, interactive content, enable educators to craft individualized learning pathways. The data-driven nature of these platforms allows for real-time adjustments and a deep understanding of learner engagement and progress [3]. Thus, personalized education in the digital era is not merely an academic concept but a practical approach to nurturing diverse talents and abilities in an increasingly complex and information-rich world.

To further illustrate this transformation, refer to the timeline depicted below. Figure 1 presents a chronological overview of the pivotal developments in personalized education through the digital era. It traces the evolution from the late 1990s, with the rise of the internet, to the mid-2020s, when artificial intelligence and machine learning began to deeply inform educational practices.

The use of machine learning in education is a milestone in personalizing education [4]. Historically, education methods were most static and reactive because of logistical constraints and resource limitations. However, machine learning adds a dynamic and proactive touch. It uses big data to reveal learning patterns, forecast results, and customize the educational material and user experience [5]. Machine learning has a profound effect on helping educators develop more adaptive curricula and better understand learner needs at a more sophisticated level. Machine learning applications are broadening in schools, from grading to tutoring to e-school news. They usher in a new epoch in education within which learning ceases to be a transfer of knowledge and becomes an inspiring discussion for every student, thus making education democratic.

2. Applications of Machine Learning in Educational Settings

Machine learning (ML) has emerged as a cornerstone technology in contemporary educational settings, reshaping the landscape of learning and teaching methodologies ^[6][8]. The efficacy of ML lies in its ability to analyze extensive datasets, extracting patterns and insights that are imperceptible to the human eye ^[7][9]. This capability finds its application in several areas within the educational sphere. One of the primary areas is the development of personalized learning environments ^[8][10]. Here, ML algorithms assess individual student’s learning patterns, preferences, and performances, enabling the creation of customized educational content that matches their unique learning trajectories. Another significant application of ML in education is the automation of administrative tasks ^[9][11]. Tasks such as grading and assessment traditionally consume considerable time, and resources are now being streamlined through ML algorithms. This enhances efficiency and gives educators more time to focus on interactive and student-centered teaching. ML has revolutionized the domain of predictive analytics in education ^[10][12]. By analyzing past student performance data, ML algorithms can predict future learning outcomes and identify potential academic risks. This foresight enables educators and institutions to intervene early, providing targeted support to students who might be at risk of underperforming ^[11][13]. ML contributes to the evolution of adaptive testing mechanisms. These systems adjust the difficulty level of tests based on the student’s responses, ensuring a more accurate assessment of their knowledge and skills. Such adaptive tests are crucial in understanding each student’s mastery of subjects, allowing for more effective and targeted educational strategies ^[12][14]. Integrating ML in educational tools has facilitated more engaging and interactive learning experiences. Gamified learning environments, interactive simulations, and virtual labs powered by ML algorithms offer students an immersive and hands-on learning experience, significantly enhancing their engagement and knowledge retention ^[13][15]. In essence, machine learning applications in educational settings are vast and varied, each contributing to a more effective, efficient, and personalized learning experience. As ML technology continues to advance, its role in shaping the future of education is both significant and indispensable. In the context of the aforementioned applications of ML in education, Figure 2 visually encapsulates the diverse and transformative roles that ML plays within the educational ecosystem. The diagram illustrates the flow from data processing to tailored educational interventions, encapsulating the multifaceted impact of machine learning on the educational experience.

3. Theoretical Underpinnings of Personalized Learning

The concept of personalized learning, pivotal in the modern educational discourse, is grounded in theories that advocate tailoring education to individual needs ^[14][16]. Central to this is the constructivist theory, which posits that learning is an active, constructive process where learners build new ideas upon their existing knowledge. This theory emphasizes the importance of personalizing learning experiences to align with individual cognitive structures, enhancing comprehension and retention. Adding depth to this framework, cognitive load theory underscores the significance of managing the amount of information learners process at any given time. It advocates for instructional designs that optimize cognitive resources, ensuring learners are neither overwhelmed nor under-challenged. Personalized learning systems, guided by this theory, aim to balance the cognitive load by adapting content complexity and pacing to suit individual learner capacities. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences introduces a broader perspective on individual differences in learning. It suggests that learners vary in their strengths and preferred ways of learning, ranging from linguistic and logical to spatial and kinesthetic intelligence. In this context, personalized learning involves creating diverse learning pathways that cater to these varied intelligences, enabling each learner to engage with content most effectively. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) also provides critical insights into personalized learning. It proposes that optimal learning occurs within a zone where tasks are neither easy nor difficult but achievable with appropriate guidance. Personalized learning environments leverage this principle by continuously adjusting the difficulty of tasks to remain within the learner’s ZPD, thus maximizing learning potential. The principles of self-regulated learning highlight the role of learner autonomy and motivation in the learning process ^[15][17]. Personalized learning environments that incorporate these principles empower learners to take control of their learning journey, making choices about what, how, and when they learn, thereby fostering deeper engagement and intrinsic motivation. Collectively, these theories form a robust theoretical foundation for personalized learning, advocating for educational approaches that are learner-centered, adaptive, and responsive to individual students’ diverse needs and abilities. They underscore the potential of personalized learning to create more effective and inclusive educational experiences.

4. Previous Studies on Adaptive Learning Systems

Adaptive learning systems, as the prior confluence between technology and pedagogy, have been given significant research coverage, enabling personalized education to grow. Such systems use algorithms to modify learning content and paths on the fly, considering each learner’s specific demands. Earlier research in this area has mostly focused on the effectiveness and implications of these adaptive systems in differing school contexts ^[16][18]. A large body of literature has shown the benefits of adaptive learning systems on students’ engagement and attainment in studies. Research has shown that such systems can dramatically improve learning outcomes by offering a tailored, learner-sensitive learning experience ^[17][19]. For example, Xie et al. reported a significant increase in student outcomes in mathematics by introducing adaptive learning technologies. The research has also addressed the cognitive component of adaptive learning ^[18][20]. For instance, in his study, Johnson investigated the use of adaptive systems to minimize cognitive overload for learners by offering information in pieces that suit the learners’ level of knowledge. This technique demonstrated high rates of comprehension and retention. Another area of inquiry has involved adaptive learning systems in developing inclusive education ^[19][21]. Studies have been conducted to determine the possibility of designing such systems for varied learners, including special needs students. According to Smith et al. adaptive technologies can be used to provide learning equity for students with a disability, wherein personalized adaptations in the learning material fill in the gap of learning. Several other studies have been published that address the combination of adaptive learning systems and other pedagogical strategies. Similarly, Lee and Park incorporated the use of adaptive technologies into project-based learning, with their research showing that this integration can promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

5. Identifying Gaps in Current Personalized Learning Research

Despite such enormous strides brought by adaptive systems in personalized learning, there are glaring holes in the present research. One of the most significant gaps is the absence of an in-depth longitudinal inquiry into personalized learning and its impact on student outcomes. Nevertheless, there is limited knowledge of long-term results concerning skills storage, critical planning, and problem-solving capacities. The third important area of deficiency is the knowledge of the effectiveness of personalized learning within different demographic and educational contexts. Existing studies are mostly directed to specific populations or academic disciplines, which do not describe how such systems function within different cultural and socio-economic environments. This gap is significant given the global expansion in educational technologies largely hitting on diverse educational paradigms and learner profiles. Limited research exists regarding incorporating personalized learning systems within conventional classroom environments ^[20][22]. More research is required for the areas where such subsystems will embrace or contradict conventional teaching approaches. Therefore, appreciating this relationship is important for harmonizing technology in education and deriving maximum utility from both ends. Teacher facilitation in personalized learning environments has been little researched ^[21][23]. Adaptive systems concern personalized content, but the part of the teacher as a guide, motivator, and provider of contextual understanding in such an environment is not so clear. Examining this dimension is critical to maximizing the utilization of technology in education so that it enhances but does not replace important human aspects of instruction. Additional research should explore the data privacy and ethical ramifications of employing machine learning in education ^[22][24]. Data security, consent, and the ethical use of information are major concerns for adaptive systems that rely on student data to work effectively. This field of science is especially important in the time of big data and high sensitivity regarding digital privacy.