Mitochondria are double-membrane organelles within eukaryotic cells that act as cellular power houses owing to their ability to efficiently generate the ATP required to sustain normal cell function. Also, they represent a “hub” for the regulation of a plethora of processes, including cellular homeostasis, metabolism, the defense against oxidative stress, and cell death. Mitochondrial dysfunctions are associated with a wide range of human diseases with complex pathologies, including metabolic diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Therefore, regulating dysfunctional mitochondria represents a pivotal therapeutic opportunity in biomedicine. Marine ecosystems are biologically very diversified and harbor a broad range of organisms, providing both novel bioactive substances and molecules with meaningful biomedical and pharmacological applications. Many mitochondria-targeting marine-derived molecules have been described to regulate mitochondrial biology, thus exerting therapeutic effects by inhibiting mitochondrial abnormalities, both in vitro and in vivo, through different mechanisms of action.
Compound(s) | Marine Organism |
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Compound(s) | Marine Organism | Mechanism of Action Regarding Mitochondria |
Cell Line or Model of Disease Used in Preclinical Studies | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In Vitro/In Vivo Models | Mechanism of Action Regarding Mitochondria | Disease Area | Mitochondrial Biogenesis | ||||||
n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) | Microalgae and macroalgae | ↑PGC1-α, ↑NRF1, ↑mitochondrial biogenesis | |||||||
Ilimaquinone | Halichondria sp. | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 | C57BL/6J epididymal fat [24][1] | ||||||
caspase activation, ↑ROS, ↓Δψm | Breast cancer | [ | 38 | ][15] | oligomannuronate (OM) and OM-chromium (III) complexes (OM2 and OM4) | Laminaria japonica | ↑PGC1-α, ↑mitochondrial function, ↑mitochondrial biogenesis | C2C12, 3T3-L1 [25][2] | |
Xestoquinone | Petrosia sp. | Molt-4, K562, Sup-T1 | ↑ROS, ↓HSP90 | Leukemia [39][16 | SCP-1 and SCP-2 | Acaudina leucoprocta | ↑AMPK/PGC1-α, ↑NRF2, ↑mitochondrial biogenesis, ↓oxidative stress | Fatigue test in ICR mice [ | |
Renieranycin M | Xestospongia sp. | H460 | 26][3] | ||||||
↑BAX, ↓MCL1, ↓BCL2, caspase activation | Lung cancer | [ | 40 | ,41][17][18] | Mitochondrial dynamics | ||||
Nortopsentins A-C | Spongosorites ruetzler | P388 cells | caspase activation | Leukemia [42][19] | Aurilide A | Dolabella auricularia | |||
T1 (Nortopsentins A-C analogue) | Accelerate OPA-1 processing, mitochondrial fragmentation, and the release of CytC | [ | Spongosorites ruetzleri | 27][4] | HeLa S3, NCI60 panel [ | HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells28][5] | |||
caspase activation, ↑mitochondrial trans-membrane potential | Colon cancer | [ | 43 | ][20] | Aurilide B, C | Lyngbya majuscule | |||
T2 (Nortopsentins A-C analogue) | HCT-8, P388, A549, SK-OV-3, PC-3 | Spongosorites ruetzleri[29][6] | |||||||
HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells | caspase activation, ↑mitochondrial trans-membrane potential | Colon cancer | [ | 42][19] | Kulokekahilide-2 | Philinopsis speciosa | P388, SK-OV-3, MDA-MB-435 [30] | ||
Manzamine A | Haliclona sp., Xestospongia sp., Pellina sp. | [ | HCT116 cells | ↓BCL2, Δψm loss, ↑caspase activation, CytC release, | Colon cancer [44][21] | Lagunamides A, B, C and D | L. majuscule | P388, A549, PC3, HCT8, SK-OV3, HCT8, MCF7 [31,32][8][9] | |
] | 7 | ] | |||||||
Aplysinopsins | Thorecta sp. | K562 cells | ↓BCL2, Δψm loss | Leukemia [45][22] | Piscidin-1 | Hybrid striped bass | |||
Irciniastatin A | ↓MFN1, ↓MFN2, ↓OPA1, ↓OXPHOS, ↑DRP1, ↑FIS1, ↑mtROS, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis | Ircinia ramose sp. | MG63 [33,34][10][11] | ||||||
Jurkat cells | ↑ROS, ↑JNK, ↑p38, apoptosis | Leukemia | [ | 46][23] | Xyloketal B | Xylaria sp. | ↑Drp1, ↓mitochondrial fregmentation, ↓mitochondrial superoxide production |
In vitro model of ischemic stroke in PC12 [35][12] | |
10-acetylirciformonin B | Ircinia sp. | HL 60 cells | ↓BCL2, ↓Bcl-xL, ↑BAX, ↑ROS, CytC release, apoptosis | Mitophagy | |||||
Leukemia | [ | 46 | ] | [23] | |||||
Mycothiazole | Petrosaspongia mycofijiensis | T47D cells | ↓HIF-1 signaling, ↓mitochondrial function |
Breast tumor [47][24] | 5-BPCA | Polysiphonia japonica | The preservation of PARKIN expression and stabilization of mitochondrial morphology | Model of palmitate (PA)-induced lipotoxicity in a rat pancreatic β-cell line (Ins-1 cells) [36][13 | |
Cyclo(-Pro-Tyr) | Callyspongia fistularis sp. | HepG2 cell | ] | ↓BCL2, ↑BAX, ↑ROS, apoptosis | Hepatocellular carcinoma [48][25 | Fucoidan: treatment with Fucoidan nanoparticles loaded with proanthocyanidins | Brown algae | ↑PINK1, ↑PARKIN, ↓mtDNA release | A model of cisplatin-induced damage in vitro (HK-2 cells) and in vivo (Kunming mice) [37][14] |
] | ||||
Urupocidin A | ||||
Monanchora pulchra | ||||
sp. | ||||
PCa cells | ||||
Δψm loss, ↑ROS, CytC release, apoptosis | ||||
Prostate cancer | ||||
[ | 49 | ] | [ | 26] |
3,5-dibromo-2-(20,40-dibromophenoxy)-phenol | Dysidea sp. | PANC-1 | Complex II inhibition | Pancreatic carcinoma [50][27] |
Santonin | Dysidea avara sp. | ALL B-lymphocytes | ↓Δψm, ↑ROS, CytC release, apoptosis | Acute lymphoblastic leukemia [51][28] |
Papuamine | Haliclona sp. | MCF-7 | mitochondrial damage and JNK activation | Breast cancer [52][29] |
2-ethoxycarbonyl-2-β-hydroxy-A-nor-cholest-5-ene-4one | Acropora Formosa hexocoral, Dendronephthya sp. | A549 | ↓ TNF-α, ↓IL-8, ↓Bcl2, ↓MMP2, ↓MMP9, ↑ROS, ↑ BAX, ↑p21, CytC release | Lung cancer [53][30] |
Methyl 5-[(1E,5E)-2,6-Dimethyl octa-1,5,7-trienyl] furan-3-carboxylate | Sinularia kavarittiensis coral | THP-1 | ↓Bcl-xL, ↑BAX, ↑ROS, ↓Δψm, CytC release, apoptosis |
Leukemia [54][31] |
Sinularin | Sinularia flexibilis coral | SK-HEP-1 | ↑ROS, ↓Δψm,↓OXPHOS, apoptosis |
Liver cancer [55,56][32][33] |
11-dehydro-sinulariolide | Sinularia flexibilis coral | Ca9-22 | ∆Ψm loss, ↑caspase-3/-9 ↑Bax, ↓Bcl-2/Bcl-Xl, CytC release, apoptosis |
Melanoma [55][32] |
Aplidin | Aplidium albicans | MOLT-4, NIH3T3 | ↑ROS, ↓Δψm, ↓ATP, apoptosis | Leukemia, Lymphoma [57,58][34][35] |
n-hexane, diethyl ether and methanolic extracts | Phallusia nigra | Isolated mitochondria from skin tissue of melanoma induced albino/Wistar rats | mitochondrial swelling, ↑ROS, ↓Δψm, CytC release, apoptosis | Melanoma [59][36] |
Mandelalide A | Lissoclinum ascidian | NCI-H460, Neuro-2A, HeLa cells | complex V inhibition, apoptosis | Lung cancer, Neuroblastoma [60][37] |
Mandelalide E | Lissoclinum ascidian | NCI-H460, HeLa, U87-MG, HCT116 | apoptosis | Lung cancer, Glioblastoma [61][38] |
CS5931 | Ciona savignyi | HCT-8 | ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, ↑Bax, ↓Δψm, CytC release, apoptosis | Colon cancer [62][39] |
Echinoside A and ds-echinoside A | Pearsonothuria graeffei | HepG2, mice | apoptosis | Hepatocarcinoma [63][40] |
Stichoposide C | Thelenota anax | HL-60, K562, THP-1, NB4, SNU-C4, HT-29, CT-26; mouse CT-26 subcutaneous tumor and HL-60 leukemia xenograft models | ↑Fas, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-8, cleavage of Bid, mitochondrial damage, apoptosis | Leukemia, Colorectal cancer [64][41] |
Methanolic extracts | Holoturia parva, Haliclona oculate sp. | Mitochondria isolated from a rat model of hepatocellular carcinoma | ↑ROS, ↓Δψm, CytC release, ↑caspase-3, apoptosis | Hepatocellular carcinoma [65][42] |
Lamellarin D | Lamellaria | p388 | ↓Bcl-2, ↓Δψm, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, apoptosis | Leukemia [66,67][43][44] |
Extract fraction of T. coronatus | Turbo coronatus | EOC cells | ↑ROS, ↓Δψm, CytC release, mitochondrial swelling, apoptosis and necrosis | Epithelial ovarian cancer [68][45] |
Conotoxins | Conus textile | U87MG | ↑ROS, ↓Δψm, CytC release, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, ↑Bax/Bcl-2 | Glioma [69][46] |
Polysaccharide in fraction 2.1 | Donax variabilis | A549 | Mitochondrial disfunction, ↓Δψm, CytC release, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, ↑Bax/Bcl-2, apoptosis | Lung cancer cells [70][47] |