Development of Slope Treatment Technologies: Comparison
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In light of growing concerns regarding climate change and the finite availability of natural resources, it is imperative that modern slope treatment practices align with the principles of sustainable development. The attainment of environmentally sound, economically viable, and socially equitable infrastructure necessitates a holistic and long-term perspective on the impacts and tradeoffs associated with projects. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has emerged as a standardized framework for comprehensively evaluating the environmental impact of products, processes, and technologies throughout their entire life cycle. By quantifying resource use, emissions, and other environmental issues associated with a system from raw material extraction to its disposal, LCA aims to prevent the shifting of problems among assessment boundaries or phases. Against the backdrop of global energy conservation and carbon reduction efforts, LCA research has found widespread application in fields such as the chemical industry, civil engineering, agriculture, material science, and biological science. However, despite the rapid proliferation of LCA studies across many industries, its application in geotechnical engineering domains like slope treatment has remained limited.

  • life cycle assessment (LCA)
  • ecological slope treatment
  • carbon emission
  • environmental management

1. Introduction

The technology for slope treatment has evolved progressively, from traditional engineering methods to the integrated approach of ecological slope treatment, which incorporates ecological considerations [1]. Through the integration of vegetation and engineering measures, ecological slope treatment technology improves slope stability, reduces soil erosion, enhances ecological conditions, and offers cost-effectiveness and sustainability advantages [2]. This advancement has presented a comprehensive and environmentally friendly solution for slope treatment, providing a more holistic and ecologically sound approach to addressing slope protection design [3][4].

2. Engineering Slope Treatment Technology

Engineering protection refers to the use of inorganic materials, such as sand, cement, and lime, for slope stabilization. When plant-based protection methods are not suitable, particularly for rock slopes, engineering protection techniques are utilized [5]. The primary methods of engineering protection include mortar plastering [6], pointing or spraying [7], and stone slope treatment or the use of facing walls [8]. Figure 1 presents the main engineering protection technologies of slope, currently. By employing inorganic materials and employing appropriate construction techniques, these methods offer structural support and enhance the overall safety of the slopes.
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Figure 1. Engineering slope treatment technology.
1.
Slope surface protection
Slope treatment technologies are applicable to slopes that experience severe weathering of surface rock strata and are prone to erosion caused by rainfall. The main methods of slope treatment are plastering protection, hammer protection, and shotcrete protection, which are described as follows.
(a)
Plastering protection: this method involves applying a layer of plastering, typically 3 cm to 7 cm thick, on the slope surface. It effectively reduces the impact of external natural factors on the slope’s structural integrity, thereby extending its safe service life. Plastering protection is suitable for high-grade highways where the slopes consist of easily weathered soft rock [9].
(b)
Hammer protection: similar to plastering protection, this method also includes the application of a layer of plastering on the slope surface. However, prior to the additional plastering, the slope surface is hammered and compacted, and the additional plastering layer is thicker, ranging from 10 cm to 15 cm. The beating process enhances the density of the slope, making it more resistant to erosion caused by rain. This method is suitable for soil slopes and rock slopes that are susceptible to rain erosion and have experienced surface weathering.
(c)
Shotcrete protection: shotcrete involves spraying mortar and concrete onto the slope surface, to strengthen the overall structure and protect it from the erosive effects of wind and rain. However, this method may disrupt the natural landscape surrounding the highway, and it can be costly. Shotcrete protection is suitable for slopes with fractured surfaces, dense cracks, gaps, and unstable structures [9].
2.
Stone masonry protection
Masonry protection methods primarily include mortar masonry, dry rubble, and protective walls [10], which are described as follows.
(a)
Mortar rubble protection: this method is commonly used in slope treatment for high-grade highways. It involves filling the gaps among the rubble with cement mortar, creating a compact and complete engineering protection structure that effectively safeguards the slope structure.
(b)
Dry rubble protection: in this method, rubble with regular shapes is stacked on the slope surface to stabilize the slope structure. It is suitable for situations involving large-scale filling and excavation, significant slope deformation, and slopes composed of soft rock or soil.
(c)
Facing wall protection: a facing wall refers to a wall constructed on an excavated slope or a soft rock slope with a high degree of fragmentation, using mortar rubble. This method applies to slopes with severe weathering, soft rock slopes, and slopes with significant fragmentation.
3.
Anchor rod protection
A rock drilling machine is employed to vertically bore a hole into the slope, reaching the stable bedrock area within. Subsequently, an anchor rod is inserted, and cement mortar is injected into the hole to establish a cohesive connection between the anchor rod and the slope structure [11]. This technique aims to enhance the strength of the slope structure. Specifically designed for high-grade highway slopes characterized by pronounced rock-mass structure separation, a fragmented layered surface, and a steep inclination near the base of the side slope, this protection technology proves suitable.
4.
Anti-slide pile protection
At the designated location along the side slope, anti-slide piles are strategically installed to traverse the sliding surface and extend into the stable soil body beneath the lower portion. This arrangement serves to fortify the side slope and mitigate the risk of sliding. The implementation of anti-slide pile protection is prevalent in highway slopes characterized by deep sliding zones and substantial landslide thrust. This method offers several advantages, including minimal equipment requirements, convenient construction, high resistance against sliding forces, limited excavation requirements, and minimal secondary damage [12].
5.
Retaining-wall protection
The principle behind retaining-wall protection lies in the ability of the wall to resist the sliding forces generated by the loose soil, by utilizing its own weight and structural design. As a result, retaining walls are typically positioned at the leading edge and appropriate corners of slopes, which are prone to landslides due to the relatively loose nature of the slope soil [13]. Retaining walls come in various types, including anchor rod, cantilever, gravity, column plate, and soil-nailing walls. The selection and construction of a specific type depend on the characteristics of the slope section being protected. Consequently, retaining wall protection is widely employed in the engineering of slope treatment for high-grade highways.
In the field of slope treatment technology, traditional engineering methods have a long history of development. These methods are well-established in theory and practical application, representing a significant approach to slope treatment, both domestically and internationally [14]. Although the engineering protection can ensure slope stability, the methods possess certain drawbacks, including complex construction procedures, lengthy construction periods, high costs, and challenging maintenance. Specifically, the use of hardened slopes in engineering protection significantly reduces water permeability, leading to increased slope runoff. This runoff can accelerate soil erosion and undermine the overall stability of the slope treatment structure [15]. Moreover, the hardened slopes hinder water and soil conservation, reduce the soil’s capacity to retain water, and fail to replenish groundwater, resulting in declining groundwater levels, over time. Furthermore, such slopes impede the exchange of materials and energy between soil and water, leading to environmental degradation and a decrease in biodiversity [16]. In summary, the traditional engineering protections lack favorable economic and ecological benefits, and do not align with the principles of green and sustainable development advocated by the contemporary society.

3. Ecological Slope Treatment Technology

The ecological slope treatment technology not only enhances slope stability, but also reduces costs, promotes environmental sustainability, and achieves a harmonious integration of economy, ecology, and aesthetics. The key aspect of this technology is harnessing the mechanical and hydrological effects of plants to achieve slope treatment, stabilization, ecological restoration, and preservation.
The mechanical effect of plants is manifested in the reinforcement of shallow and deep roots. The shallow roots intertwine within soils and create a three-dimensional reinforcement network, which increases the bond strength of soils and enhances the stability of shallow soils on slopes [17]. Deep roots act as anchoring elements, growing vertically through the loose weathering layer until reaching the deep rock structure. The deep roots exhibit a high tensile and shear strength, similar to prestressed anchors. The interaction between roots, the root–soil contact surface, and soils forms a stable composite structure [18], which enhances the load-carrying capacity of soils, prevents slope sliding and cracking, and significantly improves the soil deformation [19].
The hydrological influence of plants also plays a critical role in slope stabilization. Plants intercept high-velocity raindrops, thereby mitigating or eliminating the erosive impact of raindrop splash [20]. This interception effectively captures rainfall and reduces surface runoff, leading to a decrease in erosion and soil loss. Furthermore, plant roots absorb water and decrease pore water pressure through transpiration, thereby enhancing slope stability and overall performance [21]. Currently, ecological slope treatments are commonly classified into artificial-grass-planting slope treatment, spray-seeding grass-planting slope treatment, and skeleton-grass-planting slope treatment, based on the type of seeding utilized [22][23][24]. Figure 2 presents the common ecological slope treatment technologies.
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Figure 2. Ecological slope-treatment technology.
1.
Artificial plant protection
The artificial-vegetation protection method encompasses various techniques, including artificial-sowing and -grass planting, paving-turf slope treatment, plant-fiber-blanket slope treatment, vegetation-bag slope treatment, and three-dimensional-net slope treatment.
(a)
Artificial-sowing and -grass planting: this technique involves evenly spreading seeds on the slope and covering them with soil. When the slope soil conditions are favorable in terms of temperature and humidity, the seeds germinate, take root, and eventually establish a plant community on the slope, achieving the objective of vegetation restoration. This method is suitable for low-height soil slopes with a gentle incline [25].
(b)
Paving-turf slope treatment: in this approach, a well-cultivated lawn is directly transplanted onto the slope surface, rapidly greening the slope. This method is commonly employed for greening urban-road slopes.
(c)
Plant-fiber-blanket slope treatment: agricultural waste materials such as rice husk, wheat husk, straw scale, and hemp fiber are combined with plant seeds, nutrients, special paper, and shaping net to produce an ecological slope treatment material that can be applied to cover the slope surface. This technique is suitable for soil slopes with a gentle incline and a flat slope surface [26].
(d)
Vegetation-bag slope treatment: non-woven fabric bags are filled with a specific proportion of plant seeds, fertilizer, water-retaining agents, sand, stones, and other fillers, to create vegetation bags. These bags are then stacked on the slope, allowing the seeds inside to germinate and facilitate slope greening [27].
(e)
Three-dimensional-net slope treatment: this method involves excavating a shallow ditch in the slope and casting grass seeds into the ditch, followed by covering the seeds with a three-dimensional net. As the grass grows and takes root beneath the net, stabilizing the slope, soil is applied to cover the three-dimensional net. Finally, a new soil layer is sprayed with grass. Once the grass roots on both sides of the three-dimensional net intertwine to form a network, the slope achieves both greening and stabilization objectives, simultaneously [28]. This technique is suitable for soil slopes and rock slopes with significant weathering.
2.
Protection of spray-seeding plants
Spray-seeding vegetation protection involves the application of a mixture comprising fertilizer, soil, plant seeds, adhesive, water, and other materials. This mixture is sprayed onto the slope using specialized equipment. Hydraulic-spray-seeding vegetation slope treatment, soil-spray-seeding vegetation slope treatment, TBS-vegetation slope treatment, and spray mixed-vegetation slope treatment all fall under the category of spray-seeding vegetation protection [29].
(a)
Hydraulic-spray-planting slope treatment: this technique utilizes a hydraulic spray machine to apply a mixture of plant seeds, fertilizer, water-retaining agent, adhesive, soil, and water, onto the slope surface. The sprayed slope is then covered with non-woven fabric, for maintenance. Although this technology offers high efficiency through mechanical construction, controlling the mixing ratio of the liquid mixture can be challenging, and construction is susceptible to weather conditions. It is suitable for slopes with gentle terrain and good soil quality [30][31].
(b)
Soil-spray-planting slope treatment: similar to hydraulic-spray-planting slope treatment, this technique also employs hydraulic-spray-seeding technology. The slope treatment process involves two steps [32]. Firstly, soils, binders, and water-retaining agents are mixed in a certain proportion to create a guest soil, which is then sprayed onto the slope surface, using a hydraulic press. This improves the slope surface, making it suitable for plant growth. Subsequently, a new mixture of plant seeds, fertilizer, soil, water-retaining agent, and binder, is sprayed onto soils. Compared to hydraulic-spray planting and slope-treatment technology, this method enhances the growing environment for slope plants, and has a wider application range. However, due to its high water consumption, complex construction technology, and high cost, this method is not suitable for areas with cold climates and arid conditions [33].
(c)
TBS-vegetation slope treatment: this technique involves the preparation of a thick-layer-base material mixture using plant seeds, soil, coarse and fine fibers, organic matter, biological bacterial fertilizer, full-price slow-release fertilizer, water, water-retaining agent, disinfectant, and pH regulator. The mixture is uniformly sprayed onto the slope surface using concrete sprayers, which can provide a solid foundation for vegetation growth on slopes. This method is suitable for weathered rock slopes with gentle inclines and slopes with poor soil conditions [34].
(d)
Spray-mixed-planting slope treatment: this technique, namely planting-concrete slope treatment, involves the mixture of soil, plant seeds, fertilizer, organic matter, water-retention materials, bonding materials, and water, in specific proportions. This meticulously prepared blend is then skillfully applied onto the slope surface using a concrete jet, resulting in the formation of a consolidated layer with a uniform thickness of approximately 10 cm and strategically placed continuous gaps [35]. The primary objective of this technique is to foster the growth of vegetation within these gaps, thereby facilitating the greening of slopes. However, it is imperative to acknowledge that the widespread implementation of this technology has encountered various technical challenges, encompassing the optimization of the mixture composition, enhancement of adhesion and bonding properties, promotion of seed germination and growth, and establishment of long-term maintenance strategies.
3.
Skeleton slope treatment
Skeleton slope treatment, also referred to as framework slope treatment, is a method used to stabilize slope structures. It involves the construction of a regular framework on the slope surface, using concrete or mortar rubble. This framework provides structural support and helps prevent slope instability. Once the framework has fully cured, the exposed areas of the slope, excluding the framework structure, are treated by spraying grass and laying sod. This vegetation helps to enhance the slope’s stability and aesthetics. This technique is particularly suitable for soil or rock slopes with a moderate incline and a certain height [12][36][37][38].
Ecological slope-treatment technology has indeed gained recognition and widespread adoption globally, due to its sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to slope stabilization and restoration. The benefits it offers, such as enhanced slope stability, reduced erosion, improved water management, and optimized visual perception, have contributed to its popularity. In the United States, the implementation of ecological slope-treatment technology has reached a significant level, with nearly 60% of roads and riverbanks adopting this approach for slope control [39]. Japan, with its well-established and mature ecological slope-treatment technology, has consistently been a leader in the field, showcasing numerous successful cases. China started researching this technology relatively late, but has made significant progress since then. China introduced advanced geotechnical materials for grass slope treatment in 1993, and subsequently developed a range of geotechnical products, including geogrids, geocell chambers, and three-dimensional vegetation nets. These products have been effectively utilized in slope treatment projects, leading to remarkable benefits and substantial advancements in China’s ecological slope treatment [40]. The global adoption and continuous development of ecological slope-treatment technology demonstrate its effectiveness and potential for addressing slope-stability challenges, while promoting sustainable practices and environmental preservation.

4. Evaluation of Ecological Benefits

Ecological slope-treatment technology has emerged as a promising approach for slope treatment, offering significant ecological benefits and promoting a more harmonious coexistence between human activities and the natural environment. Du [41] conducted a comprehensive study combining engineering practice and slope ecological-protection theory. Through the analysis of the characteristics of the slope, he proved that the implementation of ecological slope-treatment technology, according to local conditions, effectively improves the stability of the slope, inhibits soil erosion, reduces the cost of slope treatment engineering, and improves the ecological environment along the slope. This approach has been shown to produce positive economic, ecological, and social outcomes. To quantify the benefits of slope ecological protection, Yang, et al. [42] established a comprehensive evaluation index system of ecological restoration effects by using the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process. In this way, the effects of different ecological restoration methods can be quantified, and the effects of ecological restoration projects can be evaluated. The results show that the quantitative evaluation results obtained from the ecological-restoration comprehensive evaluation system are consistent with the observational analysis results, which proves the effectiveness of the evaluation system. In practical applications, De-yong, et al. [43] successfully applied 3D geonet technology to actual slope-restoration projects. Their results show that this method has good overall consolidation and soil consolidation effects at different stages of vegetation growth. Similarly, Fox, et al. [44] adopted the technology of mixed sowing of different grass species to establish a vegetation slope-treatment structure and effectively control the harm of soil erosion. These studies together demonstrate the effectiveness of ecological slope-treatment techniques in promoting slope stability, reducing erosion, and improving ecological conditions.
Ecological slope-treatment technology offers a more holistic approach, by integrating vegetation, concrete, and soil into a unified system. One of the key advantages of ecological slope-treatment technology lies in its ability to reinforce the soil and enhance slope stability. By combining vegetation with concrete and soil, a robust soil-fixing ecosystem is established. This ecosystem not only prevents soil erosion, but also strengthens the overall structure of the slope. The interplay between vegetation, concrete, and soil creates a self-sustaining system that supports long-term slope stability. Therefore, by emphasizing the ecological benefits, ecological slope-treatment technology offers a more sustainable and environmentally conscious solution for slope management.

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