5. Effects of SFN on Tumors, Chemotherapy, Radiation Therapy, and Cardiotoxicity
Laboratory and animal studies have provided evidence that SFN has anticancer properties, but more research is needed to understand its effects on humans. Studies have proposed that SFN may prevent the growth of certain types of tumors, such as breast and prostate tumors, by causing cell death and stopping the formation of new blood vessels, which are required for tumor growth.
Research supports the proposition that SFN may improve the effectiveness of chemotherapy by increasing cancer cell sensitivity to the drugs used to treat them
[87][65], which is known as “chemo-sensitization”. One way in which SFN may sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy is by inhibiting the Nrf2 pathway
[87][65].
Some studies have suggested that SFN may have beneficial effects on the body after radiation therapy, although more research is needed to confirm these findings. Radiation therapy is a common treatment for cancer that uses high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells, but it can also damage healthy cells and tissues in the area being treated, leading to side effects such as skin irritation, fatigue, and a risk of developing secondary tumors. Preliminary studies have suggested that SFN may help protect healthy cells and tissues from the harmful effects of radiation
[97][66].
Cardiotoxicity is the occurrence of heart dysfunction as electric or muscle damage, resulting in heart toxicity
[92][67]. Several studies have demonstrated the protective role of SFN in cardiotoxicity. For example, in a study by Bose et al.
[99][68] with a breast cancer model in rats, they found that SFN reduced cardiac oxidative stress (a contributing factor to cardiotoxicity) induced by doxorubicin (DOX). When DOX was administered alone, only an 11% survival rate was observed as compared to a 62% survival rate observed when DOX was combined with SFN
6. SFN on Metastasis
SFN exhibits anticancer properties at various stages of carcinogenesis in prostate, lung, colon, and breast cancers
[104,105,106][69][70][71]. Early research has focused on the ability of SFN to activate nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2). SFN was shown to be effective in preventing breast cancer at different stages of carcinogenesis by increasing the levels of antioxidants and phase II detoxifying enzymes via the activation of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2
[107][72]. SFN has been shown to alter key mechanisms in vivo and in vitro which impact induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis and inhibition of histone deacetylase. SFN inhibits transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced migration and invasion in human triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells
[61][42]. Sulforaphane (SFE), an SFN derivative, has been shown to reduce TNBC proliferation by mediating ERG1/PTEN axis
[107][72]. Sulforaphane exerted its anti-metastatic effects on non-small cell lung cancer through down-regulation of miR-616-5p, which was identified as a marker associated with risk of relapse and metastasis in patients
[108][73]. SFN has been reported to inhibit histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes, alter histone acetylation, and affect gene regulation. Natural inhibitors of HDAC have received considerable interest as anticancer agents because of their ability to induce p21Cip1/Waf1, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis
[62][43]. SFN inhibits HDAC activity in prostate cancer cells, in mouse xenografts, and in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells
[109][74]. In colon cancers, SFN blocks cells’ progression and angiogenesis by inhibiting HIF-1α and VEGF expression
[110][75].
7. SFN Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics
In mammals, SFN is metabolized rapidly via a conjugation reaction with glutathione. SFN is metabolized through the mercapturic acid pathway, starting with GSH conjugation by glutathione S-transferase and subsequently generating SFN-cysteine followed by SFN-N-acetylcysteine
[111][76]. Pharmacokinetic studies in rodents have focused on either free SFN or its metabolite SFN-glutathione. Following consumption of broccoli, sulforaphane is excreted in urine predominantly as a conjugate with N-acetyl cysteine. In plasma, it has been found that approximately 50% of sulforaphane is found unconjugated with other thiols
[104][69]. In rats, after an oral dose of 50 μmol of SFN, the plasma concentration of SFN can peak at 20 μM at 4 h and decline with a half-life of about 2.2 h
[112][77]. SFN is well absorbed in the intestine, with an absolute bioavailability of approximately 82%. Elimination of was characterized by a long terminal phase; no major difference was evident in plasma concentrations between 6 and 24 h following intravenous administration or oral administration
[113][78].
8. Ongoing and Completed Clinical Trials on SFN
Clinical trials are an important part of the research process, and drug development benefits from both favorable and unfavorable results. Even when studies do not yield the predicted outcomes, trial results can help point scientists in the correct direction
[72][53]. (Clinical trials of SFN that were withdrawn are not included in the data presented here.) The conditions with the greatest number of ongoing or previous clinical trials on SFN, including breast cancer and prostate cancer, are shown in
Figure 5a; the general phases of clinical trials on SFN (both past and current) are presented in
Figure 5b.
Figure 5. Conditions for which clinical trials with SFN have been registered. (Generated with data from ClinicalTrials.gov) (
a) Conditions and respective numbers of clinical trials. The
x-axis represents the number of studies that have recorded clinical trials with SFN and the conditions on the
y-axis. (
b) Breakdown of the phases of SFN clinical trials. This gives a general breakdown of how far SFN clinical trials have gone, with a majority of studies at the Phase 2 level.