The dietary inclusion of trace minerals (TMs), such as copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn), is of importance to cover the ever-evolving requirements for growth, production and reproduction in ruminants. Various sources of TMs are commercially available, such as inorganic (ITM), organic (OTM) or hydroxy (HTM) forms; however, their bioavailability and efficiency to improve ruminant zootechnical parameters may be highly influenced by ruminal solubility and effects on the rumen environment.
Animals | Experimental Model | Supplementation Type | Cu Dosage | Cu Source | Solubilization Time/ Supplementation Period |
Centrifugation | Ruminal Solubility * | Ref. |
---|
Cu Source | pH | DMd | GP | CH4 | VFA | A:P | NH3-N | MPS | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | Feed inclusion | 5 and 25 mg/kg DM | CuSO4 | 12 days | 28,000× g | ↑; ~17 and 14% | [34][35] | |
Cu-Hyd | ↓; ~15 and 9% | ||||||||
Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | ||||||||
Cu-Met | + | + | + | = | = | + | + | + | [53][54] |
Pulse dose via rumen cannula | 20 mg/kg DM | CuSO | 4 | 4, 12 and 24 h | 28,000× | g | ↑; ~68, 30 and 12% after 4, 12 and 24 h following ruminal administration | [44][45] | |
Cu-Hyd | ↓; ~15, 20 and 15% after 4, 12 and 24 h following ruminal administration | ||||||||
Rumen-cannulated steers | in vitro | Fermentation medium | 4, 12, 96 mg/kg DM (with 0.1% DM of S or 2% DM of urea) |
Cu-Lys | 24 h | 1200× g | ↑ (with urea) ↓ (with S) |
[31][32] | |
CuSO4 | ↓ (with S) | ||||||||
Rumen-cannulated dairy cows | in vitro | Fermentation medium | 4 mM solution | CuSO4 | 25 h | 2000× g | ↑; ~49% | [32][33] | |
CuCl2 | + | = | = | ||||||
Mn Source | pH | DMd | GP | VFA | A:P | GP | CH4NH3-N | MPS | Ref. | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
VFA | A:P | NH | 3 | -N | MPS | Ref. | |||||||||||||||||
MnSO4 | = | = | = | ||||||||||||||||||||
Zn-Gly | [ | 42 | ] | [ | 43] | ||||||||||||||||||
= | = | = | = | + | [ | 57][58] | = | = | = | + | + | ||||||||||||
Mn-Hyd | = | = | + | ||||||||||||||||||||
ZnSO4 | = | = | = | [42][43] | TBCC | = | = | + | = | = | + | MnSO4 | = | == | = | ||||||||
Zn-Hyd | [ | 44 | = | ] | = | + | [45] | CuSO | |||||||||||||||
4 | Mn-Hyd- | + | = | = | + | + | - | [ | 54][ | ||||||||||||||
ZnSO4 | 55 | ] | |||||||||||||||||||||
= | = | [ | 44][45] | RP-CuSO4 | - | + | + | + | - | ||||||||||||||
MnCl2 | = | + | = | = | = | [43][44] | |||||||||||||||||
Zn-Hyd | = | = | Cu-Lys | - | MnSO | 4 | = | - | |||||||||||||||
ZnSO4 | [ | = | 34 | - | ] | [ | 35] | ||||||||||||||||
- | [ | 31 | ] | [ | 32 | ] | for big particles’ separation; 18,500× g for bacteria and supernatant separation | ↑; ~19, 17 and 32% at 22, 46 and 70 h | |||||||||||||||
CuSO4 | [ | 40 | ] | [ | 41 | ] | |||||||||||||||||
- | Mn-Hyd | = | CuCl2 | ↑; ~49% | |||||||||||||||||||
ZnO | ↓; ~10, 9 and 25% at 22, 46 and 70 h | CuO | ↓; ~9% | ||||||||||||||||||||
CuCO3 | ↓; ~19% | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Cu-Hyd | ↓; ~17% | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Cu-EDTA | ↑; ~49% | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Cu-Prot | ↑; ~49% | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Cu-Acet | ↓; ~33% | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Rumen-cannulated dry dairy cows | in vitro | Fermentation medium | 100 and 500 mg/kg DM | CuSO4 | 22, 46 and 70 h | 100× g for big particles’ separation; 18,500× g for bacteria and supernatant separation | ↑; ~42, 37 and 57% after 22, 46 and 70 h following administration | [40][41] | |||||||||||||||
Close-up dairy cows | in vitro | Fermentation medium | 12 mg/kg fresh matter | CuSO4 | 24 h | 13,000× g | ↑ | [39][40] | |||||||||||||||
Enc. Cu | ↓ |
Animals | Experimental Model | Supplementation Type | Mn Dosage | Mn Source | Solubilization Time/ Supplementation Period |
Centrifugation | Ruminal Solubility * | Ref. | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zn Dosage | Zn Source | Solubilization Time/ | Supplementation Period | Centrifugation | Ruminal Solubility * | Ref. | ||||||||||||||||
Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | Pulse dose via rumen cannula | 40 mg/kg DM | MnSO4 | 4, 12 and 24 h | 28,000× g | ↑; ~20, 12 and 6% after 4, 12 and 24 h following ruminal administration | [44 | ||||||||||||||
Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | ] | Pulse dose via rumen cannula | 60 mg/kg DM | ZnSO4 | 4, 12 and 24 h | 28,000× g | [45] | ||||||||||||||
↑; ~39, 15 and 15% after 4, 12 and 24 h following ruminal administration | [ | 44 | ] | [ | 45 | ] | Mn-Hyd | ↓; ~10, 7 and 15% after 4, 12 and 24 h following ruminal administration | ||||||||||||||
Zn-Hyd | ↓; ~10, 5 and 10% after 4, 12 and 24 h following ruminal administration | Rumen-cannulated heifers | in vivo | Feed inclusion | 40 mg/kg DM | MnCl2 | 16 days | 16,000× g | ↓ | [ | ||||||||||||
Rumen-cannulated heifers | in vivo | 43 | Feed inclusion | 30, 250 and 470 mg/kg DM | ZnCl2 | 16 days | 16,000× g | ][ | ↑; linear increase in Zn concentration in the rumen fluid (2.26, 7.6 and 11.6 mg/L)44] | |||||||||||||
[ | 43 | ] | [ | 44 | ] | Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | Pulse dose via rumen cannula | 400 mg/kg DM | MnSO4 | 24 h | 28,000× g | ↓ at 10 h following ruminal administration | [51 | ↓ at 10 h; ↑ at 14 h following ruminal administration | |||||||
Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | Feed inclusion | ] | 30 and 120 mg/kg DM | [ | 52 | ZnSO4 | ] | ||||||||||||||
12 days | 28,000× | g | ↓; ~12 and 7% | [ | 34 | ] | [ | 35] | Mn-Hyd | ↑ at 10 h following ruminal administration | ||||||||||||
Zn-Hyd | ↑; ~14 and 11% | Mn-Met | ||||||||||||||||||||
Rumen-cannulated dairy cows | in vitro | Fermentation medium |
240 mg/kg DM | ZnO | 24 h | 10,000× g; supernatant filtered (Grade 389 ashless filters) | ↑; 65.3% (without clay); ↓; 16.5% (with clay) |
[52][53] | [ | Rumen-cannulated heifers | ||||||||||||
51 | ] | [ | 52 | ] | Rumen-cannulated dry dairy cowsin vivo | Pulse dose via rumen cannula | in vitro | Fermentation medium40 mg/kg DM |
MnSO | |||||||||||||
Zn-Hyd | 4 | 24 h | 28,000× | g | ↑ at 4 and 6 h; ↓ at 18 h following ruminal administration | = | [ | 42] | 500 mg/kg DM | ZnSO | +4 | [43] | ||||||||||
22, 46 and 70 h | = | 100× | g | Mn-Hyd | ↓ at 4 and 6 h; ↑ at 18 h following ruminal administration | |||||||||||||||||
+ | + | = | + | |||||||||||||||||||
Zn-Met | = | = | [ | 55 | ] | [ | 56 | ] | = | Rumen-cannulated steers | in vivo | Feed inclusion | 15 and 60 mg/kg DM | MnSO4 | Rumen-cannulated dry dairy cows12 days | in vitro28,000× g | Fermentation medium |
|||||
Coat. CuSO | ↑; ~62 and 65% at 15 and 60 mg/kg DM | [ | 34 | ] | [ | 35 | ] | |||||||||||||||
30 and 120 mg/kg DM | 4 | ZnO | Mn-Hyd | ↓; ~50 and 66%at 15 and 60 mg/kg DM | ||||||||||||||||||
Rumen-cannulated dry dairy cows | in vitro | Fermentation medium | 600 mg/kg DM | MnSO4 | 22, 46 and 70 h | 100× g for big particles’ separation; 18,500× g for bacteria and supernatant separation | ↑; ~94, 91 and 93% at 22, 46 and 70 h | [40][41] | ||||||||||||||
MnO | ↑; ~84, 88 and 93% at 22, 46 and 70 h |
Animals | Experimental Model | Supplementation Type | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
8 days continuous culture fermentation | ||||||||
= | ||||||||
12,000× | ||||||||
g | ||||||||
+ | + | ↓ | [ | 38 | ] | [39] | ||
+ | [ | 56 | ] | HiZox | ↑ |
= | |||||||||||||||||||
CuSO4 | = | + | MnSO4 | = | - | - | = | = | = | [ | |||||||||
[ | 57 | ] | |||||||||||||||||
40 | ] | [ | |||||||||||||||||
ZnCl2 | = | - | - | - | - | [43][44] | Cu-Gly | = | = | = | = | + | [ | ||||||
ZnSO4 | = | - | 57 | ] | [58] | ||||||||||||||
41 | ] | [ | 34 | ] | [ | 35 | ] | Lip.Enc. CuSO4 | = | = | - | - | = | = | [58][59] | ||||
CuSO4 | = | = | [44][45] | ||||||||||||||||
Cu-Hyd | = | = | |||||||||||||||||
MnO | = | - | - | = | = | = | |||||||||||||
MnSO4 | = | - | - | [51][52] | |||||||||||||||
Mn-Hyd | = | + | + | ||||||||||||||||
Zn-Hyd | = | = | Mn-Met | = | = | + | |||||||||||||
ZnSO4 | = | = | - | = | = | - | [40][41] | ||||||||||||
ZnO | = | - | - | = | = | - | CuSO4 | = | - | ||||||||||
ZnO | + | [ | 34 | ] | [ | 35 | ] | ||||||||||||
= | - | = | - | - | [ | 38 | ][39] | Cu-Hyd | = | = | |||||||||
HiZox | + | - | = | = | + | ||||||||||||||
= | CuSO4 | = | = | = | = | = | = | ||||||||||||
Zn-Prot | [ | 40 | ] | [ | 41 | ] | |||||||||||||
+ | = | = | = | [ | 61 | ][62] | CuSO4 | = | = | + | = | = | - | [39][40] | |||||
Zn-AA | = | = | - | - | = | = | [62][63 | Enc. Cu | = | = | = | = | = | = | |||||
CuSO4 | - | + | + | + | - | [59][60] | |||||||||||||
Coat. CuSO4 | - | + | + | + | - |
Zn Source | pH | DMd | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
] | ||||||||
ZnSO | ||||||||
4 | ||||||||
= | ||||||||
+ | ||||||||
+ | ||||||||
+ | ||||||||
- | [ | 63 | ] | [ | 64 | ] | ||
Coat. ZnSO4 | = | + | + | + | - |