The Use of Biomaterials for Engineering Applications: Comparison
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The incorporation of biomaterials into concrete for engineering applications has gained significant attention due to its potential to enhance both the mechanical properties and sustainability of construction materials. 

  • sustainability
  • biomaterials
  • block
  • materials
  • mixture
  • DOE

1. Introduction

Demographic, economic, and industrial development has influenced the increase in environmental problems worldwide due to air, water, and soil pollution [1,2][1][2]. Anthropogenic activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, forestry, agriculture, and waste disposal (landfilling and incineration), contribute to climate change and the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs); these are compounds present in the atmosphere that significantly increase its temperature by absorbing and emitting infrared radiation. The main GHGs and their sources vary depending on their relative contributions and duration in the atmosphere. The most significant greenhouse gases include Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), and Fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). In this way, it is essential to highlight that the intensification of agriculture, deforestation, industry, and the burning of fossil fuels are the main human activities that contribute to the emission of these greenhouse gases, which increase the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere, which in turn contributes to global warming and climate change [3].
The biodegradable portion of products, waste, and residues of biological origin from agricultural, livestock, and forestry activities, as well as related industries, including fishing and aquaculture, is called biomass [4]. Worldwide, natural biomasses have been recognized as promising, attractive, and sustainable materials since they can be used in various environmental, agricultural, and construction applications through physical, chemical, and thermal techniques [5]. Biomass has been identified as an alternative source of materials for biocomposite production [6]. On the other hand, the development of biomass from agricultural waste, through the intensive use of non-conventional raw materials, has been established as an economically viable technique, especially when it comes to fibers [7]. Regulations aimed at reducing non-renewable natural resources and maximizing the waste value have promoted the use of discarded materials as high-quality raw materials [8].
Agricultural waste has been recognized as being suitable for paper production, composites, and engineering materials. Among the plant products used are palm oil, sugarcane bagasse, corn stalks, coconut fiber, bamboo, pineapple, banana, rice, and coffee husks [9,10][9][10]. These wastes represent the most abundant natural fibers, with cellulose fibers (CF) being their main fibrous components. FCs consist of a combination of lignin, hemicellulose, and pectin. In addition, they are considered to be alternative and competitive materials compared to glass and carbon composites due to their availability, low density, weight, mechanical properties, ecological nature (renewable and degradable), and economic viability. Therefore, they are presented as an alternative material option for producing value-added products, such as biomaterials [6,11][6][11].
In recent years, researchers have recognized the potential of plant fibers for cost-effective and efficient application in high-quality fiber-reinforced polymeric materials in construction project production [12]. Thus, research has been carried out to use agricultural waste in the construction industry due to its attractive properties compared to synthetic fibers. As a result, the use of cellulose-fiber materials as reinforcement for concrete and mortar has been investigated, using different natural fibers such as banana [13], bamboo [14], rice husk [15], wheat and barley straw [16], coconut, sisal, jute, palm, and linseed [17]. Note that the recovery of this plant waste in the construction sector has several objectives: economic, technical, and environmental [18].
On the other hand, coffee cultivation is highly economically and commercially important worldwide, being cultivated in approximately 80 countries [19]. However, this industry also generates byproducts and waste, such as pulp, peel, silver skin, and coffee residue. These by-products contain different compounds, such as carbohydrates, proteins, pectins, and bioactive polyphenols. Unfortunately, inadequate disposal of these wastes, including coffee pulp, husks, and effluents, has led to water and soil contamination problems [20,21][20][21]. Coffee husks are a renewable material source, since they contain components such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. However, because the chemical composition of husk can vary between different plants and parts of the same plant, it is not easy to establish the exact percentages of its chemical composition [22]. Although there have been biotechnological applications of coffee husks, especially as fuel, their strength, stability, and modularity make them especially useful in various civil engineering applications due to their affordability and environmental advantages which are valued in the construction industry [23].
Due to the urban growth that cities are currently experiencing, and the climatic consequences associated with this phenomenon, research interest has been generated in incorporating environmentally sustainable construction materials that present mechanical properties similar to the blocks currently used in the masonry sector for construction. These materials seek to be a practical option for housing projects that promote environmental sustainability [24]. However, cement production entails high carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions due to the high temperatures required to calculate the natural raw materials (cement minerals) used in manufacturing. These emissions mainly come from three main sources: around 525 kg per metric ton of cement produced (kgCO2/tm) is generated during the decarburization of limestone in the kiln (i.e., reduction of carbon content), 335 kgCO2/tm is generated during fuel burning, and 50 kgCO2/tm is generated during the use of electrical energy in cement production [25].

2. Trends and Future Research

The use of biomaterials in concrete for engineering applications is an evolving field with several emerging trends and future research directions. These trends reflect the growing interest in sustainable construction practices and the desire to enhance concrete’s mechanical properties and environmental performance. Some trends and areas of future research are described in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Key trends and areas of future research.
The use of biomaterials in concrete for engineering applications is a dynamic and multidisciplinary field with numerous opportunities for research and innovation. Future studies will aim to optimize biomaterial integration, assess environmental impact, and develop practical solutions that contribute to more sustainable and resilient construction practices.

3. Challenges and Barriers

The acceptability of recycled aggregate in construction is hindered by several factors, including a negative public perception of recycling activities and a lack of consumer confidence in the quality of the finished product made from recycled materials. Despite the substantial utilization of recycled aggregate in civil engineering construction, barriers persist that impede its broader adoption. One of the primary obstacles is the influence of economic factors. While concrete made with recycled aggregate can match the concrete quality with virgin aggregate, skepticism surrounds the use of recycled materials from this selection. Therefore, recycled concrete will only be preferred when the cost of recycled aggregate significantly undercuts that of natural materials, even when meeting specified standards. Another challenge lies in the variability of recycled aggregate quality, which can be readily addressed by improvements in construction and demolition (C&D) processing plants. A lack of well-developed collection and processing facilities and infrastructure further impedes the broader use of recycled aggregate in construction [66][26].
Availability is crucial, as a shortage of potentially usable recycled material can significantly impact construction decisions. Additionally, the appropriate use of recycled aggregate based on its quality is essential, with higher-quality concrete debris earmarked for recycled aggregate and lower-quality material utilized as road base aggregate. The proximity between recycled aggregate factories and ready-mixed concrete factories is vital to minimize transportation costs, which can deter manufacturers and contractors from using recycled aggregate. Distrust concerning the technical feasibility of recycled aggregate is another issue voiced by clients, concrete producers, and contractors—acceptance as a realistic alternative to virgin aggregate hinges on demonstrating compliance with high-quality standards. Lastly, a general lack of trust exists among purchasers and users of recycled products, leading to a reluctance to embrace these eco-friendly alternatives. Addressing these barriers requires a multi-faceted approach involving improved processing facilities, greater accessibility to recycled materials, enhanced quality control, and increased awareness and trust-building efforts among consumers and industry stakeholders. Overcoming these challenges is essential to realizing the economic and environmental benefits of using recycled aggregate in construction [75][27].
The use of biomaterials in engineering applications presents numerous opportunities for innovation and sustainability. However, it also comes with several challenges and barriers that must be addressed for successful integration. Some key challenges and barriers associated with the use of biomaterials in engineering applications are detailed in Figure 2. Notice that biomaterials need to be compatible with the specific application and environment they are intended for. It is crucial to ensure that biomaterials can withstand mechanical stresses, temperature variations, and chemical exposures for their successful use in engineering applications. Many biomaterials can be expensive, especially those derived from natural sources or produced using specialized processes. Cost considerations are essential for widespread adoption in engineering applications where cost-effectiveness is a primary concern [76][28], and other costs related to establishing standardized testing methods and quality control measures for biomaterials are critical to ensure consistent performance and reliability across different applications. In this way, biomaterials used in engineering applications need to have sufficient durability and longevity to justify their use, especially in situations where replacements or maintenance are costly or impractical, they need to have enough durability and longevity to justify their use.
Figure 2. Key challenges and barriers associated with the use of biomaterials in engineering applications.
On the other hand, biomaterials often require specialized processing techniques to convert them into usable forms. Developing suitable processing methods and ensuring compatibility with existing manufacturing processes can be challenging. It is important to manage and calculate costs related to CAPEX and OPEX [77][29]. While biomaterials are often considered more environmentally friendly than traditional materials (biodegradability), the environmental impact of their production, use, and disposal must be carefully evaluated. This point includes considerations of resource consumption, energy use, and biodegradability; in addition, it may face resistance or skepticism from the public and stakeholders unfamiliar with their benefits and safety. It is important to take this into account through effective communication and education to gain acceptance in the industrial sector.
Finally, the use of specific biomaterials, such as those derived from animal sources or genetically modified organisms, can raise ethical and social concerns, so ethical considerations must be carefully addressed. However, continuous research and development efforts are required to discover new biomaterials, improve existing ones, and find novel engineering applications; this demands significant investments in research and collaboration among interdisciplinary teams in universities and research groups. Addressing these challenges and barriers requires collaboration among scientists, engineers, regulators, and industry stakeholders. Advances in biomaterials science and technology, along with careful consideration of ethical and environmental implications, can help overcome these obstacles and promote the widespread use of biomaterials in engineering applications.

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