Nanofiber in Water, Energy, and Food Sectors: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 1 by Hassan Ragab El-Ramady and Version 2 by Peter Tang.

Fibers can originate from two main sources, natural and synthetic fibers. Natural fibers refer to the fibers obtained from plants, animals, and minerals. Natural resources including water, energy, and food have an increase in demand due to the global population increases. The sustainable management of these resources is an urgent global issue. These resources combined in a very vital nexus are called the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. The field of nanotechnology offers promising solutions to overcome several problems in the WEF nexus.

  • WEF nexus
  • wastewater treatment
  • food packaging
  • energy harvesting
  • medicinal
  • pharmaceutical
  • biomedicine
  • nanoparticles

1. Introduction

Agriculture is the main source of our food, feed, fiber, and fuel. Fibers are one of the important agro-productivity sources. Fibers can originate from two main sources, natural and synthetic fibers. Natural fibers refer to the fibers obtained from plants, animals, and minerals. Concerning plants, natural fibers may originate from leaves, seeds, bark, fruit, and stalks as sources of fiber, whereas animal ones are derived from silk, wool, and hair as well as mineral fibers like asbestos [1]. The main properties of natural fibers may include renewable, safe, non-polluting, and legitimate sources of fiber, which could be employed for the manufacturing of several composites in the future [1]. Several recent publications issued on different applications of natural fibers, such as important sources for producing polymers (e.g., [1][2][3]). These applications may include the following fields, such as biomedicine [2], 4D printing technology [4], aerospace [5], filtration of water/wastewater [6], textiles [7], additive manufacturing applications [8], the automotive industry [9][10], the construction industry [11], thermal structure engineering [12], food packaging [13], harvesting and the storage of energy [14]. The water–energy–food (WEF) nexus has a strong relationship with nanofibers, which can support their components through mainly the following activities: food packaging [15], energy processing [16], and water handling [17].
Nanofibers are a kind of fiber that can be in natural and synthetic nanoforms (less than 100 nm). These fibers have several distinctive properties compared with natural fibers such as high porosity, large specific surface area, and high size uniformity [6]. Apart from natural fibers, nanofibers have been applied in many major sectors of our life, including agricultural [18], pharmaceutical [19], biomedical [20], and industrial fields [21] of the global water [22][23], energy [24], and food sectors [25]. Biotechnological applications of nanofibers have gained sound interest from scientists and industrial workers due to their promising roles in many fields such as delivering bioactive compounds [26], and the biomedical field [27]. The suggested roles of nanofibers in the main sectors of water, energy, and food are linked to the security of these sectors, and their nexus. Nanofibers in the water sector were discussed in many publications focusing on water treatment [6], water purification [28], and wastewater treatment [23]. Additional studies on energy and food industry applications of nanofibers could be noticed, which mainly focused on harvesting/storage of energy [24] or food packaging [25].

2. Nanofibers in Water, Energy and Food

What are the main properties of nanofibers? Nanofibers are polymeric fibers on a nano-scale, which have certain properties and can be produced using both natural and synthetic polymers. Plant natural fibers are the main sources for producing such fibers along with animal and mineral sources, which depend on the used plant fraction such as leaves, stems, stalks, and seeds (Figure 1). The most common plant fiber sources may include seed fibers from cotton (Gossypium arboretum L.), fruit fibers from coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), bark fibers from jute (Corchorus olitorius L.), leaf fibers from sisal (Agave sisalana L.), and banana (Musa sp.). Synthetic or artificial polymers of nanofibers are widely used due to their easy production, low cost, and higher mechanical properties, but they can cause long-term environmental and human health problems due to their nonbiodegradable disposal, toxic nature, and their persistence in the ecosystem for a long time [29]. Nanofibers possess several desired properties such as extremely high porosity, low density, high specific surface area, and a highly porous matrix. Nanofibers also have specific functionalities due to their large specific area, which allow immobilizing nanoparticles (NPs), metal–organic frameworks, and zeolites [29].
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Figure 1. The main sources of natural fiber resources that can be used in the agro-productivity, whereas (A) refers to the plant sources of natural fibers, (B) animal sources, and (C) is mineral sources.
Due to the previous advantages, nanofibers have many applications such as drug delivery systems [30], industrial building design [31], biomedicine [32][33], 4D printing industry [34], textile industry [35][36], and wastewater remediation [37]. Nanofibers could be produced by electrospinning and non-electrospinning techniques (Figure 2). Several unique properties of electrospun nanofibers are well-known compared with other bulk materials such as adjustability of pore sizes, large surface area, and porosity, as well as the extracellular matrix [26]. These production methods with advantages and disadvantages can be presented in Figure 3. Microbial sources for producing nanofibers are considered an important approach, which is applied to many fields such as bacterial cellulose nanofiber [38], microbial fuel cells [39], microbial polysaccharides for controlled drug release [40], and monitoring of food packaging [41]. These fields will be discussed in the following sections.
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Figure 2.
The main basic information on nanofibers, their definition, classification, and applications.
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Figure 3.
Suggested advantages (in the yellow boxes) and disadvantages (in the pink boxes) of producing methods of nanofibers.
The electrospinning method is the most widely used compared with other techniques for producing electrospun fibers due to its efficiency, operational simplicity, practicality, cost-effectiveness, and versatility [26]. The production of nanofibers is not only the main limiting factor but also the properties of these fibers, which should be evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and other methods. Certain properties of nanofibers, which are important for their functions, will be discussed in the next section including physico-chemical, mechanical, and biological characteristics. On the microscopic level of nanofibers, SEM images of the fabrics revealed that the enhancement in fiber strength can be attributed to the formation of structures resembling bamboo nodes or wheat stem nodes within the fibers. The production of nano-sized fibers and the use of these fibers to create non-woven fabric was achieved by the ouresearchers' lab (Nano Food Lab, Debrecen University, Debrecen, Hungary). These nanofibers were applied as specialized filtering materials for gases (air) and liquids, as well as for manufacturing functional filters. Several scientific attempts for producing nanofibers in the researchers'our lab were developed on different levels including a laboratory scale, a pilot-scale device, and a full-scale manufacturing facility. Design, development, and optimization of nanofiber formation using different parameters (e.g., flow rate, voltage, electrode distance, surface, time, and solution concentration) were evaluated. Construction of a full-scale manufacturing facility included design, implementation, test production, and machine adjustment, as well as mass production of products, quality control, and implementation of a quality assurance system.

3. Most Common Applications of Nanofibers

It is well known that natural fibers derived from plants have gained great concern as a sustainable alternative to synthetic materials depending on plant species and the part used. Several cultivated plants have been used in fiber production such as the stem of the following plants Himalayacalamus falconeri [42], Lankaran acacia L. [43], Ficus benjamina L. [44], Waltheria indica L. [45], Myriostachya wightiana [46], and Cyperus platystylis R. Br. [47]. Chemical treatment is the main process for producing natural fibers, which may involve alkaline, acetylation, benzoylation, peroxide, potassium permanganate, silane, and stearic acid in addition to the surface treatments [6]. The biomedical sector has major applications of nanofibers among other different sectors including water, energy, and food. Enormous applications of nanofibers in biomedicine and therapy sectors are well-known and shown in Figure 4. Nanofiber composites can be used to deliver drugs, genes, or other biomolecules. Furthermore, they can be applied for engineering different tissues, from the skin through the blood to neural tissues as summarized in Figure 4. The therapeutic application of nanofiber composites is extensive, they can be used orally, transdermally, or intravenously in different types of therapies (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
List of suggested biomedical applications of nanofiber composites (
A
), and list of applications of nanofibers in the therapy sector (
B
).
These applications may involve the delivery of drugs [30], bionanocomposites [48], and genes [49], as well as different applications in the field of tissue engineering for many human organs including bone [50], tendon [51], skin [52], cartilage [53], skeletal muscle [54], cardiac [55], vascular [56], and neural tissues [57]. Nanofibers exist in every branch of the medical sector, which contributes to several fields such as tissue engineering [58][59], regenerative medicine [60], and sensing and biomedical approaches [61]. These applications may involve drug delivery carriers [30], wound dressing [62], and facemasks [63]. These nanofibers are useful for tissue regeneration by mimicking a porous topography, enhancing the adhesion cells, and improving physiological acceptability and mechanical strength [64].

4. Further Applications of Nanofibers

Nanotechnology is one of the fastest growing fields of advanced technology and has been proven to have an essential role in achieving significant development in agricultural systems and many different scopes of science and technology [65]. It has an extremely wide range of applications that could be employed for modern industry, agriculture as nanofertilizers [66], nanopesticides, the food sector, electronics, bioengineering, renewable energy, medicine, pharmacy, cosmetics, and sensor technology [67][68]. Nanotechnology has changed the delivery properties of metal elements into plant cells and has affected the biological systems including plant survival, biosynthesis, antioxidant status, enzyme activity, growth, and development processes, and it has an active interference with the environment [69]. Nanoparticles (NPs) have proven to exhibit catalytic, optical, antibacterial, and antifungal properties [70][71]. With the advancement of nanotechnology, numerous potential applications of nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention due to their unequaled physiochemical, non-toxic properties, and practical effects of their very tiny molecules as well as the low cost and stability at high temperatures [65].
Plant tissue cultures are the center of plant biology and play a significant role in the conservation of plant resources, mass propagation, genetic manipulation, bioactive metabolites production, and plant improvement [72]. In recent years, plant tissue culture applications using nanotechnology, called plant nanobiotechnology, have become feasible and more popular [68]. The promising applications in plant tissue culture field include callus induction and proliferation [65][68][69][70], biodiversity preservation of plants by cryopreservation [73], embryogenic callus formation and plant development via somatic embryogenesis [67][74][75], and in vitro shoot multiplication and plant regeneration or organogenesis [65][72][76][77][78][79].
Moreover, NPs have been used in plant tissue cultures to improve in vitro seed germination for commercial production of seedlings by nano-priming [80], antifungal nano-composite [81], copper oxide nanoparticles [82], and iron nanoparticles [83]. NPs also have been applied for enhancing root induction [65][77][81] and stimulating the production of bioactive compounds as they can be used as elicitors in plant tissue cultures [72][75][84][85][86][87][88][89]. On the other hand, NPs may induce or reduce the somaclonal variation of in vitro cultured plants [72]. Genetic and phenotype variations that could be stimulated in vitro by Ag-NPs are very desirable in breeding programs and plant improvement [90]. Furthermore, nanoparticles could be utilized for the genetic transformation of plants via gene delivery “Nanoparticles-based delivery technique” into the plant genome, with the purpose of improving the quality and quantity of agricultural crops [91].
In addition to the direct actions of NPs on in vitro cultures, silver and cobalt nanoparticles (Ag-NPs, Co-NPs) have been used to overcome leaf abscission and enhance the growth, development, and survival rate of the in vitro propagated plantlets. They act as ethylene inhibitors [92]. Ethylene could accumulate in culture vessels and negatively affect the growth of the tissues by increasing the activity of hydrolytic enzymes leading to abnormal phenomena of leaf abscission, yellowing, and hyperhydricity of some species accordingly, which decreases the shoot quality [77]. Ag-NPs were successfully applied to reverse hyperhydricity and regain the normal growth of in vitro shoots [93]. NPs were proven to have the ability to enhance the tolerance of in vitro plants to abiotic stress. The application of iron nanoparticles could significantly mitigate the harmful effects of salinity or drought on the plant tissues cultured in vitro. This is an efficient method to produce plant materials that are tolerant to various abiotic stresses [83][94][95].
Several in vitro studies reported the antimicrobial behavior of NPs. They have the potential use to reduce the fungal and bacterial contamination of tissue-cultured plants [71][81], consequently ensuring aseptic environmental culture conditions. However, they should be used at optimal concentrations, to avoid possible toxicity to plant tissues, due to the cytotoxic behavior of the element itself (i.e., copper). CuO-NPs and Ag-NPs are considered the most effective antimicrobials commonly used in plant tissue cultures mainly for in vitro propagation of plants. They are applied by supplementing the culture media or as an explant disinfectant by surface sterilization [81][92][96][97][98]. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) showed potential for inhibition of bacterial growth in plant tissue culture media [99].
Preliminary trials on the possible use of the nanofiber as an antimicrobial in plant tissue cultures were carried out as reported in Figure 5. These experiments were performed in order to answer the following questions: what kind of nanofibers did we apply? What is the main source of these nanofibers? What is the main target of this application? What are the main results of these experiments? To what extent can we use nanofibers in the plant tissue culture field? What are the main limitations and future perspectives of this application? More justifications and validations can be extracted from these experiments by answering the previous questions.
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Figure 5. (a) One layer of nanofiber as a closure of the jar containing sterilized medium. (b) Evaporation of the medium and decomposition of the nanofiber after five weeks. (c) Double layers of nanofiber with less evaporation and without contamination. (d) Modified nanofiber (double face with a hole in the plastic cover of the jar of sterilized medium). (e) Double layers nanofiber (drying up the medium and death of the explants (RG apple shoots). (f) Modified nanofiber: the explants started to grow then died due to drying of the medium Photos were taken by Neama Abdalla.
This researchtudy was carried out using the electrospinning method for preparing the nanofibers produced by Dispomedicor Ltd. (Hajdúböszörmény, Hungary). The nanofiber was between two melt-blown nonwoven PE layers. The nanofiber was used as a closure of culture vessels. The researchers aWe aimed to determine whether nanofiber could be used to eliminate microbial contamination in plant tissue culture media or not, and to what extent these nanofibers allow good ventilation for enhancing the growth and quality of tissue-cultured plants as well. The recorded observations for these initial experiments indicated that nanofibers are promising tools and could be used efficiently to eliminate microbial contamination in the culture medium but they need some more modifications in further studies to control the high rate of evaporation from the medium, which may cause stress to the cultured tissues, and to keep the explants alive so they can grow and develop. Accordingly, obtain clean and high-quality tissue-cultured plants. Therefore, future investigations are needed on these kinds of nanofibers for more applicability. The future aim is to use these nanofibers for closing the culture vessels, not only at a small scale in the scientific labs, but also in the tissue culture companies that use big bioreactors, and/or in the nurseries of plant propagation for commercial production in a large scale.
ThWe researchers ssuccessfully developed a laboratory-scale electrospinning device capable of producing nanofibers from different composition solutions. By combining atomization and electrospinning, the researcherswe managed to develop and apply nanofiber-producing heads suitable for industrial-scale production. Various nano-powder additives for the fibers were tested and developed using a 3% graphite, 3% nano-selenium, and 10–12% PVB alcohol solution for nanofiber production (unpublished data). Further remaining tasks may include controlling and depositing the fibers produced by the atomization-based electrospinning technology onto a carrier, further investigation of the filtration efficiency of nano-fabrics, and exploring the potential applications of nanofibers with nanoparticle additives. Industrial optimization of these nanofibers may significantly contribute to the advancement and potential commercial applications of the developed technology.

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