Emerging and Re-Emerging Viruses: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Catherine Yang and Version 1 by Qingqing Xia.

Emerging and re-emerging viral outbreaks are becoming more frequent due to increased international travel and global warming. These viral outbreaks impose serious public health threats and have transformed national strategies for pandemic preparedness with global economic consequences. At the molecular level, viral mutations and variations are constantly thwarting vaccine efficacy, as well as diagnostic, therapeutic, and prevention strategies.

  • air surveillance system
  • avian influenza
  • emerging virus
  • Ebola virus

1. Filoviridae: Ebola Virus and Marburg Virus

Ebola and Marburg viruses are single-stranded RNA filoviruses, which are zoonotic and are often transmitted through direct contact with infected fluids. Both Ebola and Marburg viruses have historically high mortality rates, which have varied from 25% to 90% and 24% to 88%, respectively [3,4][1][2]. The largest outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) occurred in West Africa from 2014 to 2016 with more than 28,000 cases [5][3]. However, both viruses’ MVD case fatality rate is known to be 50%. Both viruses are transmitted through direct contact with infected blood and other bodily fluids. The Ebola virus is believed to have been first contracted by wild animals (such as fruit bats, porcupines, and non-human primates), then it spread to humans, in which human-to-human transmission is possible [3][1]. The first outbreak of Ebola was recorded in 1976 with an 88% mortality rate [5][3] and there continue to be outbreaks, mainly in Africa [3][1]. Marburg virus was first identified in Germany and Serbia in 1967, where laboratory workers were exposed to infected monkeys from Uganda [4][2].
The wide and fluctuating range of case fatality rate (CFR) data is not truly understood; possible reasons include differences in health status (nutrition, immunity, and co-infection status), genetics (ethnicity-dependent haplotypes or random polymorphisms), health-seeking behavior, case recognition, and the accessibility of supportive care at health-care facilities [5][3].

2. Flaviviridae: Zika Virus and Dengue Virus

Zika and Dengue viruses are single-stranded RNA flaviviruses often transmitted by arthropods, such as mosquitos and ticks. Both viruses are transmitted through mosquitos. Although the Zika virus was first identified in 1947 in Uganda, it became more well known when an outbreak occurred in Brazil in 2015, leading to its spread to other parts of the Americas. Before then, it was only sporadically prevalent in Africa and Asia. Its primary concern for public health is how the virus affects pregnancy and newborn babies. A total of 5–15% of infants of women who were infected with Zika while pregnant suffered from Zika-related problems, like the following: microcephaly in the newborn, which is where the baby is born with an underdeveloped head and brain, resulting in neurological disorders and other developmental problems [6][4]. Dengue has become more prevalent in the past decade, from over 500,000 cases in 2000 to 5.2 million in 2019. Dengue mostly affects Southeast Asia, which accounts for 70% of the global burden. It also seriously affects the Americas and the Western Pacific region. The largest recorded dengue outbreak occurred in 2019, in which the Americas reported 3.1 million cases, and Asian countries, like Bangladesh, Malaysia, Philippines, and Vietnam, recorded many cases as well. Dengue’s severity ranges from being asymptomatic to fatal. The majority of those who contract dengue have mild to no symptoms, in which case they will get better in 1–2 weeks. Common symptoms include high fever, severe headaches, body aches, and rash. Rarely, dengue can become more severe, in which case, symptoms can also include bleeding and even cause death. One who has had dengue in the past is more likely to contract severe dengue the second time [7][5].

3. Coronaviruses: MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2

MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 are single-stranded RNA coronaviruses and transmitted via airborne particulates. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) was first reported in Saudi Arabia in 2012, and all cases of MERS have been traced back to the Middle East. MERS-CoV is first contracted from camels, mainly in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia, and is then transmitted to humans. However, its specific transmission route between camels and humans still needs to be determined. Due to its limited person-to-person transmission, though possible, it is not considered an epidemic; however, it still poses a global threat because of its high mortality rate [8][6]. Both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 originate from China, emerging in 2002 and 2019, respectively. Both viruses caused and continue to cause a global threat due to their high transmission rates [9][7]. COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, is still considered a pandemic as it continues to mutate and spread worldwide.

4. Avian Influenza (H5N1, H7N9)

Avian influenza virus is a strain of the single-stranded RNA influenza A virus that is transmitted between birds through airborne transmission, thus being able to be detected in the form of aerosols. Avian influenza includes the strains H5N1 and H7N9, which are transmissible to humans from birds and considered the most common strains to infect people [10][8]. Although it cannot be transmitted from human to human, nor is it common for it to be transmitted to humans from birds, it has the potential to become a global threat due to its high fatality rate in humans. With increasing numbers of mammals with avian influenza being detected, it poses risks of the virus being able to infect humans faster and easier since mammals are biologically closer to humans than birds are. Scientists have found mammal-to-mammal airborne transmission possible in ferrets, and only a few mutations take place before it is possible [11][9]. Scientists have also found a strong possibility of co-infection with avian influenza and the more common human influenza due to the high seroprevalence of both viruses in minks [12][10]. Thus, the possibility of new mutations arising from co-infection could lead to a greater risk to public health.

5. Monkeypox Virus

Since May 2022, there have been multiple outbreaks of Mpox (previously known as monkeypox) worldwide. It has been declared a public health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) as it becomes increasingly transmissible among humans. The monkeypox virus is a zoonotic double-stranded DNA virus in the Orthopoxvirus genus, which also includes smallpox. Although its fatality rate is not high, it spreads rapidly, resulting in many hospitalized patients. Mpox was first discovered in Denmark in 1958. Since 2005, Mpox outbreaks have been sporadically occurring, mainly in Africa. Thus, the sudden spread of Mpox throughout Europe and the Americas caused concern. The monkeypox virus’ primary mode of transmission is through direct contact, particularly affecting men who have sexual contact with other men [13][11]. A summary of emerging viruses is described in Table 1.
Table 1.
A summary of emerging viruses.
Virus Size (Diameter) Shape Geo-Regions Detection Method References
Ebola 80 nm,

varying length		 rod-shaped 17 countries

(mainly Africa)		 RT-PCR, LFA, NGS, antigen test [3,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22][1][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]
Marburg <14,000 nm rod-shaped 11 countries

(mainly Africa)		 RT-PCR, ELISA [23,24][21][22]
Zika 40–43 nm sphere 89 countries RT-PCR, ELISA, RT-LAMP [25,26,27][23][24][25]
Dengue 40–50 nm sphere >100 countries RT-PCR, ELISA, immunoassay [7,28,29,30][5][26][27][28]
MERS-CoV 80–120 nm sphere 27 countries RT-PCR, CRISPR, biosensor [8,31,32,33][6][29][30][31]
SARS-CoV 80–120 nm sphere China and four

other countries		 RT-PCR, CRISPR [9,31,32][7][29][30]
SARS-CoV-2 80–120 nm sphere worldwide RT-PCR, CRISPR, ELISA, LAMP, LFA, NGS, antigen/antibody test [31,,35][2932,][3033,][31]34[32][33]
Avian Influenza 100 nm sphere worldwide RT-PCR [36,37][34][35]
Monkeypox 200–250 nm (length) brick-shaped 110 countries RT-PCR [13,38,39][11][36][37]
RT-PCR, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; LFA, lateral flow assay; NGS, next-generation sequencing; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; RT-LAMP, reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification, CRISPR, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats.

References

  1. Ebola Virus Disease. Available online: https://www.who.int/health-topics/ebola#tab=tab_1 (accessed on 23 August 2023).
  2. Marburg Virus Disease. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/marburg-virus-disease (accessed on 23 August 2023).
  3. Jacob, S.T.; Crozier, I.; Fischer, W.A., 2nd; Hewlett, A.; Kraft, C.S.; Vega, M.A.; Soka, M.J.; Wahl, V.; Griffiths, A.; Bollinger, L.; et al. Ebola virus disease. Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim. 2020, 6, 13.
  4. WHO Zika Virus. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus (accessed on 23 August 2023).
  5. World Health Organization (WHO). Dengue and Severe Dengue. Key Facts. 2019. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dengue-and-severe-dengue#:~:text=Dengue%20(break%2Dbone%20fever),body%20aches%2C%20nausea%20and%20rash (accessed on 17 September 2023).
  6. WHO. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). MERS Monthly Summary, November 2019. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/ (accessed on 20 August 2023).
  7. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Available online: https://www.who.int/health-topics/severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome#tab=tab_1 (accessed on 20 August 2023).
  8. Influenza Type A Viruses|Avian Influenza. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/influenza-a-virus-subtypes.htm (accessed on 15 August 2023).
  9. Sutton, T.C.; Finch, C.; Shao, H.; Angel, M.; Chen, H.; Capua, I.; Cattoli, G.; Monne, I.; Perez, D.R. Airborne transmission of highly pathogenic H7N1 influenza virus in ferrets. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 6623–6635.
  10. Sun, H.; Li, F.; Liu, Q.; Du, J.; Liu, L.; Sun, H.; Li, C.; Liu, J.; Zhang, X.; Yang, J.; et al. Mink is a highly susceptible host species to circulating human and avian influenza viruses. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2021, 10, 472–480.
  11. Mpox (Monkeypox). Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/monkeypox (accessed on 20 August 2023).
  12. Noda, T.; Sagara, H.; Suzuki, E.; Takada, A.; Kida, H.; Kawaoka, Y. Ebola virus VP40 drives the formation of virus-like filamentous particles along with GP. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 4855–4865.
  13. Baseler, L.; Chertow, D.S.; Johnson, K.M.; Feldmann, H.; Morens, D.M. The Pathogenesis of Ebola Virus Disease. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2017, 12, 387–418.
  14. Ebola Disease Distribution Map: Cases of Ebola Disease in Africa Since 1976. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/distribution-map.html (accessed on 24 August 2023).
  15. Martin, P.; Laupland, K.B.; Frost, E.H.; Valiquette, L. Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola virus disease. Intensiv. Care Med. 2015, 41, 895–898.
  16. Dudas, G.; Carvalho, L.M.; Bedford, T.; Tatem, A.J.; Baele, G.; Faria, N.R.; Park, D.J.; Ladner, J.T.; Arias, A.; Asogun, D.; et al. Virus genomes reveal factors that spread and sustained the Ebola epidemic. Nature 2017, 544, 309–315.
  17. Tong, Y.-G.; The China Mobile Laboratory Testing Team in Sierra Leone; Shi, W.-F.; Liu, D.; Qian, J.; Liang, L.; Bo, X.-C.; Liu, J.; Ren, H.-G.; Fan, H.; et al. Genetic diversity and evolutionary dynamics of Ebola virus in Sierra Leone. Nature 2015, 524, 93–96.
  18. World Health Organization. WHO Emergency Use Assessment and Listing for Ebola Virus Disease IVDs. Product: ReEBOV Antigen Rapid Test Kit; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
  19. Broadhurst, M.J.; Kelly, J.D.; Miller, A.; Semper, A.; Bailey, D.; Groppelli, E.; Simpson, A.; Brooks, T.; Hula, S.; Nyoni, W.; et al. ReEBOV Antigen Rapid Test kit for point-of-care and laboratory-based testing for Ebola virus disease: A field validation study. Lancet 2015, 386, 867–874.
  20. Layqah, L.A.; Eissa, S. An electrochemical immunosensor for the corona virus associated with the Middle East respiratory syndrome using an array of gold nanoparticle-modified carbon electrodes. Microchim. Acta 2019, 186, 224.
  21. Brauburger, K.; Hume, A.J.; Mühlberger, E.; Olejnik, J. Forty-five years of marburg virus research. Viruses 2012, 4, 1878–1927.
  22. Marburg Virus Disease Distribution Map. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/marburg/outbreaks/distribution-map.html (accessed on 24 August 2023).
  23. Coelho, S.V.A.; Neris, R.L.S.; Papa, M.P.; Schnellrath, L.C.; Meuren, L.M.; Tschoeke, D.A.; Leomil, L.; Verçoza, B.R.F.; Miranda, M.; Thompson, F.L.; et al. Development of standard methods for Zika virus propagation, titration, and purification. J. Virol. Methods 2017, 246, 65–74.
  24. Woolsey, C.; Cross, R.W.; Agans, K.N.; Borisevich, V.; Deer, D.J.; Geisbert, J.B.; Gerardi, C.; Latham, T.E.; Fenton, K.A.; Egan, M.A.; et al. A highly attenuated Vesiculovax vaccine rapidly protects nonhuman primates against lethal Marburg virus challenge. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2022, 16, e0010433.
  25. Herrada, C.A.; Kabir, A.; Altamirano, R.; Asghar, W. Advances in Diagnostic Methods for Zika Virus Infection. J. Med. Devices 2018, 12, 040802.
  26. Madanayake, N.H.; Rienzie, R.; Adassooriya, N.M. Electron microscopic methods for virus diagnosis. In Viral Infections and Antiviral Therapies; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2023; pp. 121–140.
  27. Lim, J.K.; Seydou, Y.; Carabali, M.; Barro, A.; Dahourou, D.L.; Lee, K.S.; Nikiema, T.; Namkung, S.; Lee, J.-S.; Shin, M.Y.; et al. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics associated with dengue during and outside the 2016 outbreak identified in health facility-based surveillance in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2019, 13, e0007882.
  28. Needs, S.H.; Sirivisoot, S.; Jegouic, S.; Prommool, T.; Luangaram, P.; Srisawat, C.; Sriraksa, K.; Limpitikul, W.; Mairiang, D.; Malasit, P.; et al. Smartphone multiplex microcapillary diagnostics using Cygnus: Development and evaluation of rapid serotype-specific NS1 detection with dengue patient samples. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2022, 16, e0010266.
  29. Masters, P.S. The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Adv. Virus Res. 2006, 66, 193–292.
  30. Chong, Z.X.; Liew, W.P.P.; Ong, H.K.; Yong, C.Y.; Shit, C.S.; Ho, W.Y.; Ng, S.Y.; Yeap, S.K. Current diagnostic approaches to detect two important betacoronaviruses: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Pathol.-Res. Pract. 2021, 225, 153565.
  31. Singh, B.; Datta, B.; Ashish, A.; Dutta, G. A comprehensive review on current COVID-19 detection methods: From lab care to point of care diagnosis. Sens. Int. 2021, 2, 100119.
  32. Massart, S.; Chiumenti, M.; De Jonghe, K.; Glover, R.; Haegeman, A.; Koloniuk, I.; Komínek, P.; Kreuze, J.; Kutnjak, D.; Lotos, L.; et al. Virus detection by high-throughput sequencing of small RNAs: Large-scale performance testing of sequence analysis strategies. Phytopathology 2019, 109, 488–497.
  33. Al Ahmad, M.; Mustafa, F.; Panicker, N.; Rizvi, T.A. Optical Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Utilizing Antigen-Antibody Binding Interactions. Sensors 2021, 21, 6596.
  34. Moreira, E.A.; Yamauchi, Y.; Matthias, P. How Influenza Virus Uses Host Cell Pathways during Uncoating. Cells 2021, 10, 1722.
  35. Korteweg, C.; Gu, J. Pathology, molecular biology, and pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. Am. J. Pathol. 2008, 172, 1155–1170.
  36. Lansiaux, E.; Jain, N.; Laivacuma, S.; Reinis, A. The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): A brief overview. Virus Res. 2022, 322, 198932.
  37. Chelsky, Z.L.; Dittmann, D.; Blanke, T.; Chang, M.; Vormittag-Nocito, E.; Jennings, L.J. Validation Study of a Direct Real-Time PCR Protocol for Detection of Monkeypox Virus. J. Mol. Diagn. 2022, 24, 1155–1159.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback