Renewable energy has great potential to establish stability and is an ideal and economic alternative in developing countries. Renewable energy creates a balance between economic systems and the environment. Renewable energy can greatly reduce pollution and the dependency on fossil fuels, deliver high-quality energy, conserve natural resources, and create new jobs [1]. Specifically, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems enable countries worldwide to achieve economic growth, boost environmental sustainability, and reduce unemployment rates ^[2][3][2,3]. Consequently, wide-scale installations of rooftop PV systems have been observed ^[4][5][6][4,5,6]. Further, rapid reductions in the cost of PV modules and rises in their efficiency have made rooftop PV systems a crucial component in the transition toward energy sustainability by providing household owners with a range from approximately 50% to over 100% of the electricity needed to operate units of residential buildings ^[7][8][7,8]. Still, resident initiatives are required to expand the adoption of clean energy-efficient technology to replace conventional energy systems and thereby achieve a sustainable environment. The adopter experience with PV systems in the operation, maintenance, post-installation services, complaints handling, and quality assurance of PV systems may provide valuable feedback to suppliers and manufacturers on how to gain competitive advantages in the PV market. Therefore, examining the effects of adopters’ satisfaction with PV systems, installations, and post-installation services on renewable energy goals becomes a necessity.

Generally, satisfaction is a key determinant for the adoption of solar PV systems [9]. Satisfaction with PV systems can be defined as the overall affective response to a perceived discrepancy between prior expectations and perceived changes in energy consumption and environmental impacts after the installation of solar PV systems [10]. To enhance the quality perception of household energy usage and costs, manufacturers should explain all relevant technical aspects of PV systems. Poor quality of PV systems and high energy costs could negatively influence adopters’ satisfaction with the PV systems ^[11][12][11,12]. Thus, a high service level should be maintained, and ongoing support and advice should be provided to adopters on how to maximize the economic and environmental benefits gained from the adoption of solar PV systems. The efficiency of PV systems can also be increased by the installation of certain high-tech components that can absorb the minimum sunlight to generate energy. In return, adopting new designs of solar PV products can improve adoption behavior and installers‘ satisfaction with PV systems.

Further, the exposure to positive word-of-mouth (WoM) and/or electronic WoM (eWOM) prior to purchasing PV systems has a positive impact on the non-adopters’ expectations. WoM/eWOM is a form of communication that aims to pass information from one person to another through various ways, such as face-to-face, telephone, and email ^[13][14][15][13,14,15]. WoM significantly influences non-adopter intentions to install PV systems and impacts their expectations and perceptions during information search during the buying process as well as influences attitudes during the pre-choice evaluation of alternative service providers ^[16][17][16,17]. Consequently, it can be hypothesized that positive WoM (eWOM) on PV systems results in increasing the number of PV installations and thereby generating more PV solar energy.

Furthermore, the success of companies operating in the renewable energy market depends on a public understanding of renewable energy resources and related technologies. Qu et al. [18] argued that public adoption is an important factor for both the development and application of renewable energy technologies. They stated that the disuse of renewable energy resources was negatively affected by public unawareness about new technologies, the lack of impartiality, mistrust, and suspicion towards investors. Therefore, the success of advertising can be assessed by consumers’ interest and attention, motivated by efforts in advertising on the functional advantages of renewable energy ^[19][20][19,20]. As an important marketing channel, advertising must be conducted in an interactive way to stimulate customers. Advertising campaigns are established to achieve certain objectives, which may hierarchically include goals ranging from awareness enhancement to behavioral change [21]. Consequently, advertising and competition are considered key drivers to promote and develop high-quality PV products and systems ^[22][23][22,23]. Attitudes toward solar PV energy contribute to the growth in rooftop PV installation and have a significant impact on households’ intention to adopt renewable electricity ^[24][25][24,25]. PV non-adopters who actively search for new information on renewable energy products are more likely to have a positive attitude toward rooftop PV installation. Therefore, suppliers and manufacturers of PV solar systems should work closely with “early adopters” to develop the operational economic aspects of PV products [26]. In this context, it is hypothesized that advertising and competition are positively related to the number of PV installations.

The impacts of renewable energy policies on energy security and CO₂ emission reduction have received significant research attention. For example, Hsu ^[27][37] used a system dynamics approach to evaluate the impacts of feed-in tariff (FiT) prices and subsidies to promote solar PV adoption in Taiwan. Aslani and Wong ^[28][38] investigated the effectiveness of renewable energy policies in increasing energy security, minimizing total policy costs, and maximizing the number of renewable energy systems in the United States. Ahmad et al. ^[29][39] employed a system dynamics model to assess the effect of FiT policy in promoting solar PV investments in Malaysia up to 2050. Radomes and Arango ^[30][40] analyzed the effects of subsidy and FiT policies on the diffusion of PV systems in Colombia using the breakeven and cost-benefit analyses. Young and Brans ^[31][41] analyzed the factors affecting a shift in a local energy system toward a 100% renewable energy community. Jain et al. ^[32][42] studied the impact of solar PV on power system dynamics using integrated transmission and distribution network models. Li et al. ^[33][43] reviewed PV poverty alleviation projects in China, identified the challenge and suggested policy recommendations. Njoh et al. ^[34][44] presented the implications of institutional frameworks for renewable energy policy administration for PV solar electrification projects in Esaghem. Nair et al. ^[35][45] examined the impact of renewable energy on electricity generation and energy security in Malaysia. Karna and Singh ^[36][46] proposed a system dynamics framework for analyzing the viability of solar PV in Province-2 of Nepal. Al-Refaie and Lepkova [3] developed a system dynamics model to examine the impacts of renewable energy policies on CO₂ emissions reduction and energy security using system dynamics for the case of the small-scale sector in Jordan up to 2050. Two energy policies were studied, including the feed-in tariff and subsidy. Results showed that government investment in PV adoption results in 100% energy security and a significant reduction of CO₂ emissions. Sensitivity analysis and optimization were finally conducted to test the robustness of PV goals under parameter uncertainties and find the optimal values for the subsidy share. Albatayneh et al. ^[37][47] integrated environmental solution-virtual environment software to predict the reduction and increase in heating and cooling loads connected to the roof floor each month for a middle-income home in Jordan’s capital, Amman. They constructed mono-crystalline PV modules for rooftop PV installations with a total U-value of 6.87 W/m² K, a total thickness of 0.60 cm, and a net R-value of 0.0055 m² K/W. The studied building included a total of 12 PV panels each with dimensions of 1.70 × 1.00 m². The total installed power of the building was 480 kW. The energy simulation results for an area of 180 m² revealed a total energy demand of 5693.9 kWh/year. On the other hand, adopters’ satisfaction with rooftop PV systems, advertising, and/or competition have received significant research attention. For example, Mukai et al. ^[38][48] examined causal factors affecting adopters’ satisfaction with PV systems to evaluate the extent to which residential PV system users understand specifications, reliability, and failure risks in Kakegawa City. The study showed weak adopters’ understanding of the basic specifications of their residential PV systems and poor knowledge about proper maintenance. Furthermore, they confirmed the strong causal relationship between adopters’ expectations of financial return from the PV system and their level of satisfaction. Komatsu et al. [11] analyzed the characteristics of households installing solar PV systems in Bangladesh. They quantitatively identified the factors that affect adopters’ satisfaction with PV systems. Then, the determinants of users’ satisfaction and households’ perceptions of the benefits of PV systems, including the quality of PV equipment and reduction in energy costs, were evaluated. Further, econometric analysis was conducted, and the results revealed that poor experiences with the frequency of battery repairs and replacement in PV systems negatively influences the satisfaction of households with PV systems. Moreover, a key finding was that the quality of PV equipment plays a significant role in improving adopter’s satisfaction with PV systems. Kim et al. ^[39][49] developed a model of solar power technology adoption using structural analysis. Results revealed that the system quality, perceived benefits, and perceived trust have positive influences on public attitudes. Additionally, public attitudes toward and satisfaction with solar technologies were found to have positive impacts on the adoption of solar technologies. Sweeney et al. ^[40][50] adopted the self-determination theory to explain WoM about energy-saving behavior using two samples of university students in Australia. They stated that independence-seeking behavior and word-of-mouth communications stimulate and change customers’ behavior toward using renewable energy. Stigka et al. ^[41][51] surveyed the advantages of renewable energy resources from the perspective of 200 respondents from one of the Malaysian Government-Linked Universities. They found that users’ attitudes toward renewable energy and the lower social costs of energy lead to social adoption. Tarigan ^[42][52] simulated and analyzed the rooftop PV on building roofs of the University of Surabaya, Indonesia for electric power generation. They also calculated the reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that could be obtained with PV systems mounted on the building roofs. It was found that about 10,353 m² of the rooftop area of the university buildings could be used for panel installation. The total capacity of the panels was found to be about 2070 kWp, with total electricity production of about 3180 MWh per year and could supply up to 80% of the campus energy demand. The system would serve as a means of reducing 3367.6, 2477.2, or 1195.7 tons of CO₂ to the atmosphere in comparison with the same amount of electricity produced by burning coal, oil, or natural gas, respectively. The unit cost of PV electricity ranged from USD 0.10 to 0.20 per kWh. Sharifi et al. ^[43][53] analyzed advertising effectiveness toward renewable energy technologies adoption. A neural network analysis was employed to identify advertising effectiveness based on the Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action (AIDA) framework. The results of the AIDA model with neural networks analysis revealed that the attraction of customers’ attention toward using RETs via advertising activities would affect the adoption of the technologies by providing customers with necessary information about the advantages of renewable energy and related technologies to facilitate the decision-making of customers. Lopez-Ruiz et al. ^[44][54] explored the extent to which solar rooftop deployment at the residential scale in Riyadh could be cost-efficient and could accelerate decarbonization in Saudi Arabia. The study revealed that the maximum aggregate solar power capacity at the residential level would be around 400 MW. Also, the current residential electricity tariff does not incentivize PV solar rooftop deployment. Gernaat et al. ^[45][55] implemented rooftop PV in the Integrated Assessment Model to examine its possible role in energy and climate scenarios. The global technical and economic potential to derive regional cost–supply curves for rooftop PV were calculated. Then, the new decision in the IMAGE model allowed household investment in rooftop PV based on the comparison of the wholesale electricity price with the price of rooftop PV. Results showed that adding rooftop PV could lead to an 80–280% increased share of photovoltaic electricity production in 2050. Martinopoulos ^[46][56] conducted a complete life-cycle impact assessment for typical PV systems throughout Europe and then calculated environmental impact, sustainability, energy return on energy invested, and payback period. The results showed that the energy return on energy invested ranges from 1.64 to almost 5 depending on location, while the simple payback period is less than 11 years in most cases, and as low as 5, without any subsidy. Agathokleous and Kalogirou ^[47][57] analyzed various scenarios for the installation of PV roof systems in existing and future households of Cyprus Island until 2050. Results showed that the electricity demand in the domestic sector could be 100% covered when over 70% of the existing residential stock installs a 3 kW roof PV system. Haryadi et al. ^[48][58] examined customer interest in using rooftop PV in Indonesia’s electricity market using primary survey data from households and industries. Then, they employed logit model regression to analyze the impact of the demographic background of respondents. Exploratory factor analysis was used to understand the reasons why the existing users utilize rooftop PV at their homes. The results showed that education, residence location, and income can positively and significantly influence the probability of installing rooftop PV. Fakhraian et al. ^[49][59] conducted a complete systematic review of various developed methodologies published in the current state of the art, and identified vital factors for urban rooftop solar photovoltaic potential assessment as well as to identify the best available methods to create a complete global basis for future studies. Maqbool et al. ^[50][60] explored stakeholders’ satisfaction with renewable energy projects using a structural equation modeling approach. Qadourah ^[51][61] examined the feasibility of installing PV systems on apartment building rooftops in Jordan’s various climate areas and determined the potential power generation from such systems over their lifetime. Polysun 12 simulation software was adopted to estimate electricity production and assess electricity consumption and production under different tariff schemes and distinct tilt angles, azimuth angles, space between arrays, and accordingly different capacity and installation areas. Gomez-Exposito et al. ^[52][62] assessed on a large-scale basis the expected contribution of rooftop PV to the future electricity mix in Spain. Several sustainable scenarios were evaluated, each comprising different shares of centralized renewables, rooftop PV and storage. Results showed that a sustainable, almost emissions-free electricity system for Spain is possible at a cost that can be even lower than current wholesale market prices. Pan et al. ^[53][63] studied four installation scenarios based on rooftop area data and analyzed the technical and economic potential of PV power generation on the rooftops of urban buildings in China. The results showed that the rooftop area in Guangzhou suitable for PV installation is 391.7 km², with a maximum potential power generation capacity of 44.06–72.12 billion kWh per year. The optimal economics were reached with a 20° installation tilted angle and monocrystalline silicon PV panel material, with a 6-year payback period. Still, few research efforts have been directed toward modeling the causal relationships between adopters’ satisfaction with PV systems, WoM, and advertising and competition and predict their impacts on PV goals for rooftop residential buildings in Jordan. In addition, this research examines the impacts of the adoption of the subsidy policy by government with these factors on energy security and sustainability.