Families of Viruses that Affect Passeriformes: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Sirius Huang and Version 1 by Richard Williams.

Interest in emerging viruses is growing because some can cause serious or lethal disease in humans and animals. The number of cloacal virome studies is also growing, however, these usually focus on poultry and other domestic birds, These studies reveal a wide variety of viruses, although the pathogenic significance of most newly discovered viruses is uncertain. Analysis of viruses detected in wild birds is complex and often biased towards waterfowl because of the obvious interest in avian influenza or other zoonotic viruses. Less is known about the viruses present in the order Passeriformes, which comprises approximately 60% of extant bird species. This review aims to compile the most significant contributions, from traditional and metagenomic studies, on the viruses that affect passerines. It highlights most passerine species have never been sampled. Some viruses, especially Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Poxviridae and Togaviridae, and arguably others, are considered emerging because of increased incidence or avian mortality/morbidity, spread to new geographical areas or hosts and their zoonotic risk. However, many of these viruses have only recently been described in passerines using metagenomics and their role in the ecosystem is unknown.

  • biodiversity
  • DNA viruses
  • emergence
  • metagenomic studies
  • passeriformes
  • RNAviruses
  • spillover
  • zoonoses

1. Introduction

An emerging viral disease can be defined as a new occurrence of a disease because of: (a) the evolution or change of an existing virus or its spread to a new geographic area, species or ecological niche; (b) its rapidly increasing incidence, in terms of numbers of infected individuals or geographic range; or (c) a previously unrecognized disease or virus [1,2,3,4,5][1][2][3][4][5]. A viral disease of the past (i.e., one previously considered to be controlled) that re-appears with an increased prevalence in an area with susceptible host populations, expands its host range or appears in a new clinical form, is usually termed as re-emergent viral disease [4,6][4][6]. Many recent human emerging viral diseases have an animal origin, some with a significant impact on animal or public health, such as SARS-CoV-2, and two viruses that infect passerines: influenza A virus (AIV) and West Nile virus (WNV). The advent of modern, more powerful sequencing and bioinformatics technologies has increased the discovery of novel viruses in animals, with or without causing disease, that may be pathogenic, emergent, or zoonotic. Many of these novel and potentially emerging viruses are found in avian species that are present in virtually every ecosystem. Surprisingly, although passerines are the most abundant and diverse avian species worldwide, little is known about the novel and emerging viruses that they host and their possible role in the emergence of new viral diseases in animals and humans.
Several factors are related to the development of emerging viruses and diseases as they enable infectious agents to evolve into new ecological niches, to reach and adapt to new hosts, and to spread more easily among the new hosts: urbanization and destruction of natural habitats, allowing humans and animals to live in close proximity; international travels and trade; climate change and changing ecosystems; changes in populations of reservoir hosts or intermediate insect vectors [4,5][4][5]. All these inter-dependent factors imply that the study of new or emerging viruses must be approached from a multisectoral and multidisciplinary perspective, framed in the One Health approach supported by the WHO, WOAH and FAO [4,5][4][5] (Figure 1). The international trade of passerines, mainly ornamental breeds, has been also associated with the introduction of novel viruses in some countries, which pose a risk to native or endemic species if they can jump the species barriers, such as described with avipoxvirus in New Zealand [7]. There is also reasonable concern that more vulnerable individual species (of all taxa, including Passeriformes) may be at risk of extinction from viral pathogens. It is suggested that island endemic species are particularly vulnerable to pathogens, especially introduced pathogens to which they have no prior contact and no innate immunity [7]. Other authors have pointed out that all species with a small geographic range, low population size and low genetic diversity may be highly vulnerable to extinction, not just those island endemic species [8]. However, the researchers are not aware of any evidence that any species has ever become extinct due to a viral pathogen.
Figure 1. The theoretical role of passerine birds in the circulation and potential spillover of viruses and other infectious agents to other passerines (blue semi-circular arrow around the bird in the center), domestic, peridomestic and other wild birds (blue bidirectional arrows) and their relation to potential zoonotic risk or threats to biodiversity (orange unidirectional arrows). The relation of passerines to theoretical consequences, such as zoonotic risk or threats to biodiversity, are depicted using orange unidirectional arrows. The One Health concept is represented by the light grey ring.
One of the most important factors that determines viral emergence is related to the adaptation of a given virus to new host species and/or the concomitant appearance of changes in the environment that offer new opportunities for the virus to thrive [9]. Some emerging viruses have a broad range of hosts. For example, RNA viruses such as West Nile virus (WNV) and Avian Influenza virus (AIV) can infect hundreds of different bird species including passerines. Others, such as herpesviruses or papillomavirus, are usually considered to be specific for one or a few related species [9,10][9][10]. Many species may act both as natural viral reservoirs and as amplifying hosts in bird-vector-bird cycles, for example, some togaviruses and flaviviruses. Occasionally these viruses are transmitted to incidental (dead-end) hosts including humans, equids, and other mammals. Birds can also act as a gene source of emerging viruses in cross-species transmission, for example, new influenza viruses may evolve through the reassortment of different gene segments [11].
The potential adaptation of an emerging virus to a new host depends on viral transmission routes (shedding of virus and infection in individuals) and the possibility of reaching this new host is facilitated by close and prolonged contact between individuals (such as breeding facilities). Viral transmission in birds may be horizontal (between individuals) or vertical (from females to offspring, congenitally or through embryonated eggs such as avian leukosis virus). Horizontal transmission is the most frequent and can occur by direct contact between animals (aerosols, fluids, feces, wounds or by predation or scavenging), by indirect contact through fomites or contaminated material (such as water, food, or troughs), and by vectors. Common vectors are blood-feeding arthropods such as mosquitos, midges, and ticks, in which the virus is propagated, and viruses transmitted mainly by this route are collectively called arboviruses (from Arthropod-Borne viruses). Vector-borne transmission is an indirect route of increasing importance in emerging viral diseases, some of which are important zoonoses, such as flaviviruses and togaviruses. It should be noted that viruses can be transmitted by more than one route.
Alternatively, viruses can enter the body via epithelial or the superficial mucosa of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts. The most common routes of infection are ingestion of contaminated water or food (the fecal-oral route, for instance, picornaviruses) or inhalation of droplets expelled by an infected individual (respiratory route, for instance, herpesviruses and metapneumoviruses) or contaminated surfaces. Respiratory viruses can also be transmitted by contact with eye mucosa. In airborne transmission, viruses can spread over long distances through small respiratory aerosols that can remain suspended and travel in the air, such as influenza virus [12]. Viruses transmitted through ingestion usually are non-enveloped, resistant to low pH and to the acids in the digestive tract, and often produce diarrhea, causing large amounts of virus to be shed into the environment (where they can remain infectious for a long period of time) [9]. Diverse pathogens are probably transmitted between wild birds and domestic birds and poultry when feed and water are contaminated with feces in open aviaries and free-range farms. Describing the cloacal virome is essential for understanding the ecology of viruses circulating in the environment, identifying new virus-host relationships, and defining the risk of virus emergence [13]. However, data on the cloacal virome of wild or domestic passerines are still very scarce and, besides previous study in French Guiana and Spain [13], there are only a few other studies in China [14,15][14][15] and Australia/New Zealand [7,16,17][7][16][17]. Increased investigation of the virome and emerging viruses of passerines is vital for predicting future outbreaks and spillovers that can affect birds and other animals, humans and biodiversity [13,15][13][15].
Greater than two-thirds of viral taxa that infect humans are considered to be zoonotic: they are able to infect non-human vertebrates and may circulate in non-human reservoirs [18]. The alternative hosts for most zoonotic viruses are mammals (rodents, ungulates, other primates, carnivores, and bats). Birds are a much less important reservoir for zoonotic disease than mammals. Though less than 20% of zoonotic viruses share avian hosts [18], current data shows that birds are an important potential source for zoonotic viruses.
Passeriformes is the most diverse avian order. These are songbirds and perching birds with well-known species including sparrows, starlings, thrushes, magpies, crows, swallows, and finches. There are around 10,700 bird species, placed in 41 orders and 248 families, of which nearly 6400 species (59.6%) and 140 families (56.5%) are Passeriformes [19], making it by far the most speciose avian family. In addition, many passerine species are also extremely abundant. One recent estimate of the abundance of 92% of bird species determined that there are approximately 50 billion individual birds (albeit with high levels of uncertainty), of which 28 billion (56%) are Passeriformes [20]. This begs the question of whether the diversity of viruses circulating in Passeriformes is approximately equal to their share of avian diversity and abundance, and whether they could pose a significant risk to human and animal health and environmental balance.
Passerines include wild, urban, rural, and pet birds. Many passerine species are extremely abundant in the wild, but many populations of passerines are synanthropic species that live in close proximity to anthropogenic environments, which boosts the risk of the circulation of viral diseases between humans [21] poultry, and passerines (Figure 1). Pet passerines are usually bred for ornamental use, kept in captivity at home or in different types of aviaries (e.g., breeding facilities) that may have access to outdoors increasing the risk of contact with wild birds [22]. Migratory passerines can spread a wide variety of viruses over long distances, potentially being capable of infecting resident wild passerines (such as house sparrows, Passer domesticus), and these latter possibly contaminating pet birds living in open aviaries or poultry in farms [22]. For example, it has been suggested that small passerines could serve as bridge hosts for low-pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAI) from infectious waterfowl to commercial turkey farms [23]. It is possible that the contact zone between agriculture and wildlife provides an interface where viruses could potentially circulate between wild and domestic birds [23] but probably vice versa as well. Passerines could play a larger role than previously thought in this interaction, a hypothesis that needs to be further studied.

2. Families of Viruses Affecting Passeriformes

The most important families of viruses affecting passerine birds are shown in Figure 2. Data on the bird species and families these viruses affect is summarized in Table 1, Tables S1 and S2 (can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/microorganisms11092355/s1, Table S1: List of bird species; Table S2: List of avian families). Species recognized by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) are italicized.
Figure 2. Viral transmission routes in passeriform birds. DNA viruses are shown in blue and RNA viruses in green. Avian Influenza virus (AIV), Avian leukosis virus (ALV), APMV (Avian paramyxovirus), APV (Avian papillomavirus), BCRV (Buggy Creek virus), BFDV (Circovirus), CaCV (Circovirus), CNPV (Canary poxvirus), CoHV-1 (Columbid herpesvirus-1), CoV (coronavirus), HEV (hepevirus), CRESS-DNA viruses (circular-rep encoded single stranded DNA), CV (calicivirus), EEEV (Equine eastern encephalitis virus), Estrildidae adenovirus (EsAdV), FcPV (Fringilla coelebs papillomavirus), FGPV (Picornavirus), FWPV (Fowlpox virus), GFAdV-1 (Gouldian finch adenovirus-1), GTAdV-1 (great tit adenovirus-1), HPAI (Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza), HJV (Highland J virus), MAYV (Mayaro virus), PaHV-1 (Passerid herpesvirus-1), PaPV (Passerid parvovirus), PasAstV (Passerid astrovirus), Passerid adenovirus-1 (PaAdV-1), PsHV-1 (Psittacid herpesvirus-1), RRV (Ross River virus), RVA (rotavirus), ScPV1 (Serinus canaria papillomavirus), SINV (Sindbis virus), SLEV (Saint Louis Encephalitis virus), USUV (Usutu virus), and WNV (West Nile virus).
Table 1. Virus names, abbreviations and genus/species designations are listed according to the taxonomy and nomenclature approved by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) [294][24]. All ICTV accepted viral taxa are in italics.

References

  1. Burrell, C.J.; Howard, C.R.; Murphy, F.A. (Eds.) Chapter 15—Emerging Virus Diseases. In Fenner and White’s Medical Virology, 5th ed.; Academic Press: London, UK, 2017; pp. 217–225. ISBN 978-0-12-375156-0.
  2. Daly, J.M. Zoonosis, Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Diseases. In Encyclopedia of Virology; Bamford, D., Zuckerman, M., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021; pp. 569–576. ISBN 978-0-12-814516-6.
  3. Ertunc, F. Emerging Plant Viruses. In Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens; Ennaji, M., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 1041–1062. ISBN 978-0-12-819400-3.
  4. World Health Organization. A Brief Guide to Emerging Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses; WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia: New Delhi, India, 2014; ISBN 978-92-9022-458-7.
  5. World Organization for Animal Health. Terrestrial Code Online Access. Available online: https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/ (accessed on 19 June 2023).
  6. Yadav, M.P.; Singh, R.K.; Malik, Y.S. Emerging and Transboundary Animal Viral Diseases: Perspectives and Preparedness. In Emerging and Transboundary Animal Viruses; Malik, Y.S., Singh, R.K., Yadav, M.P., Eds.; Livestock Diseases and Management; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 1–25. ISBN 9789811504020.
  7. French, R.K.; Filion, A.; Niebuhr, C.N.; Holmes, E.C. Metatranscriptomic Comparison of Viromes in Endemic and Introduced Passerines in New Zealand. Viruses 2022, 14, 1364.
  8. Manne, L.L.; Brooks, T.M.; Pimm, S.L. Relative Risk of Extinction of Passerine Birds on Continents and Islands. Nature 1999, 399, 258–261.
  9. Jiménez-Clavero, M.Á. Animal Viral Diseases and Global Change: Bluetongue and West Nile Fever as Paradigms. Front. Genet. 2012, 3, 105.
  10. Canuti, M.; Munro, H.J.; Robertson, G.J.; Kroyer, A.N.K.; Roul, S.; Ojkic, D.; Whitney, H.G.; Lang, A.S. New Insight into Avian Papillomavirus Ecology and Evolution from Characterization of Novel Wild Bird Papillomaviruses. Front. Microbiol. 2019, 10, 701.
  11. Chan, J.F.-W.; To, K.K.-W.; Chen, H.; Yuen, K.-Y. Cross-Species Transmission and Emergence of Novel Viruses from Birds. Curr. Opin. Virol. 2015, 10, 63–69.
  12. Wang, C.C.; Prather, K.A.; Sznitman, J.; Jimenez, J.L.; Lakdawala, S.S.; Tufekci, Z.; Marr, L.C. Airborne Transmission of Respiratory Viruses. Science 2021, 373, eabd9149.
  13. Truchado, D.A.; Llanos-Garrido, A.; Oropesa-Olmedo, D.A.; Cerrada, B.; Cea, P.; Moens, M.A.J.; Gomez-Lucia, E.; Doménech, A.; Milá, B.; Pérez-Tris, J.; et al. Comparative Metagenomics of Palearctic and Neotropical Avian Cloacal Viromes Reveal Geographic Bias in Virus Discovery. Microorganisms 2020, 8, 1869.
  14. Dai, Z.; Wang, H.; Wu, H.; Zhang, Q.; Ji, L.; Wang, X.; Shen, Q.; Yang, S.; Ma, X.; Shan, T.; et al. Parvovirus Dark Matter in the Cloaca of Wild Birds. GigaScience 2023, 12, giad001.
  15. Shan, T.; Yang, S.; Wang, H.; Wang, H.; Zhang, J.; Gong, G.; Xiao, Y.; Yang, J.; Wang, X.; Lu, J.; et al. Virome in the Cloaca of Wild and Breeding Birds Revealed a Diversity of Significant Viruses. Microbiome 2022, 10, 60.
  16. Chang, W.-S.; Eden, J.-S.; Hall, J.; Shi, M.; Rose, K.; Holmes, E.C. Metatranscriptomic Analysis of Virus Diversity in Urban Wild Birds with Paretic Disease. J. Virol. 2020, 94, e00606–e00620.
  17. Custer, J.M.; White, R.; Taylor, H.; Schmidlin, K.; Fontenele, R.S.; Stainton, D.; Kraberger, S.; Briskie, J.V.; Varsani, A. Diverse Single-Stranded DNA Viruses Identified in New Zealand (Aotearoa) South Island Robin (Petroica australis) Fecal Samples. Virology 2022, 565, 38–51.
  18. Woolhouse, M.; Scott, F.; Hudson, Z.; Howey, R.; Chase-Topping, M. Human Viruses: Discovery and Emergence. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2012, 367, 2864–2871.
  19. Clements, J.; Schulenberg, T.; Iliff, M.; Billerman, S.; Fredericks, T.; Gerbracht, J.; Woods, C. Checklist of Birds of the World. Available online: https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/ (accessed on 19 July 2023).
  20. Callaghan, C.T.; Nakagawa, S.; Cornwell, W.K. Global Abundance Estimates for 9700 Bird Species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2021, 118, e2023170118.
  21. Gibb, R.; Redding, D.W.; Chin, K.Q.; Donnelly, C.A.; Blackburn, T.M.; Newbold, T.; Jones, K.E. Zoonotic Host Diversity Increases in Human-Dominated Ecosystems. Nature 2020, 584, 398–402.
  22. Boseret, G.; Losson, B.; Mainil, J.G.; Thiry, E.; Saegerman, C. Zoonoses in Pet Birds: Review and Perspectives. Vet. Res. 2013, 44, 36.
  23. Ayala, A.J.; Yabsley, M.J.; Hernandez, S.M. A Review of Pathogen Transmission at the Backyard Chicken–Wild Bird Interface. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020, 7, 539925.
  24. Walker, P.J.; Siddell, S.G.; Lefkowitz, E.J.; Mushegian, A.R.; Adriaenssens, E.M.; Alfenas-Zerbini, P.; Davison, A.J.; Dempsey, D.M.; Dutilh, B.E.; García, M.L.; et al. Changes to Virus Taxonomy and to the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature Ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2021). Arch. Virol. 2021, 166, 2633–2648.
  25. Tomaszewski, E.K.; Gravendyck, M.; Kaleta, E.F.; Phalen, D.N. Genetic Characterization of a Herpesvirus Isolate from a Superb Starling (Lamprotornis superbus) as a Psittacid Herpesvirus Genotype 1. Avian Dis. 2004, 48, 212–214.
  26. Žlabravec, Z.; Slavec, B.; Vrezec, A.; Kuhar, U.; Zorman Rojs, O.; Golob, Z.; Račnik, J. Detection of Herpesviruses in Wild Bird Casualties in Slovenia. Front. Vet. Sci. 2022, 9, 822212.
  27. Žlabravec, Z.; Trilar, T.; Slavec, B.; Krapež, U.; Vrezec, A.; Rojs, O.Z.; Račnik, J. Detection of Herpesviruses in Passerine Birds Captured during Autumn Migration in Slovenia. J. Wildl. Dis. 2021, 57, 368–375.
  28. Paulman, A.; Lichtensteiger, C.A.; Kohrt, L.J. Outbreak of Herpesviral Conjunctivitis and Respiratory Disease in Gouldian Finches. Vet. Pathol. 2006, 43, 963–970.
  29. Woźniakowski, G.J.; Samorek-Salamonowicz, E.; Szymański, P.; Wencel, P.; Houszka, M. Phylogenetic Analysis of Columbid Herpesvirus-1 in Rock Pigeons, Birds of Prey and Non-Raptorial Birds in Poland. BMC Vet. Res. 2013, 9, 52.
  30. Lawson, B.; Lachish, S.; Colvile, K.M.; Durrant, C.; Peck, K.M.; Toms, M.P.; Sheldon, B.C.; Cunningham, A.A. Emergence of a Novel Avian Pox Disease in British Tit Species. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e40176.
  31. Williams, R.A.J.; Benitez, L. Chapter 5: Avian Poxvirus. In Ecology of Wild Bird Diseases; Fereidouni, S., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, in press; pp. 154–176. ISBN 978-0-8153-7945-4.
  32. Manuel Medina, F.; Adolfo Ramírez, G.; Hernández, A. Avian Pox in White-Tailed Laurel-Pigeons from the Canary Islands. J. Wildl. Dis. 2004, 40, 351–355.
  33. McDonald, S.E.; Lowenstine, L.J.; Ardans, A.A. Avian Pox in Blue-Fronted Amazon Parrots. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1981, 179, 1218–1222.
  34. Van Riper, C., III; van Riper, S.G.; Hansen, W.R. Epizootiology and Effect of Avian Pox on Hawaiian Forest Birds. Auk 2002, 119, 929–942.
  35. Davidson, W.R.; Kellogg, F.E.; Doster, G.L. An Epornitic of Avian Pox in Wild Bobwhite Quail. J. Wildl. Dis. 1980, 16, 293–298.
  36. Tripathy, D.N.; Schnitzlein, W.M.; Morris, P.J.; Janssen, D.L.; Zuba, J.K.; Massey, G.; Atkinson, C.T. Characterization of Poxviruses from Forest Birds in Hawaii. J. Wildl. Dis. 2000, 36, 225–230.
  37. Tripathy, D.N.; Reed, W.M. Pox. In Diseases of Poultry; Swayne, D., Ed.; Wiley-Blackwell: Ames, IA, USA, 2013; pp. 333–349.
  38. Yeo, G.; Wang, Y.; Chong, S.M.; Humaidi, M.; Lim, X.F.; Mailepessov, D.; Chan, S.; How, C.B.; Lin, Y.N.; Huangfu, T.; et al. Characterization of Fowlpox Virus in Chickens and Bird-Biting Mosquitoes: A Molecular Approach to Investigating Avipoxvirus Transmission. J. Gen. Virol. 2019, 100, 838–850.
  39. Williams, R.A.J.; Truchado, D.A.; Benitez, L. A Review on the Prevalence of Poxvirus Disease in Free-Living and Captive Wild Birds. Microbiol. Res. 2021, 12, 403–418.
  40. Gyuranecz, M.; Foster, J.T.; Dán, Á.; Ip, H.S.; Egstad, K.F.; Parker, P.G.; Higashiguchi, J.M.; Skinner, M.A.; Höfle, U.; Kreizinger, Z.; et al. Worldwide Phylogenetic Relationship of Avian Poxviruses. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 4938–4951.
  41. Le Loc’h, G.; Ducatez, M.F.; Camus-Bouclainville, C.; Guérin, J.-L.; Bertagnoli, S. Diversity of Avipoxviruses in Captive-Bred Houbara Bustard. Vet. Res. 2014, 45, 98.
  42. MacDonald, A.M.; Gibson, D.J.; Barta, J.R.; Poulson, R.; Brown, J.D.; Allison, A.B.; Nemeth, N.M. Bayesian Phylogenetic Analysis of Avipoxviruses from North American Wild Birds Demonstrates New Insights into Host Specificity and Interspecies Transmission. Avian Dis. 2019, 63, 427–432.
  43. Phalen, D.N.; Agius, J.; Vaz, F.F.; Eden, J.-S.; Setyo, L.C.; Donahoe, S. A Survey of a Mixed Species Aviary Provides New Insights into the Pathogenicity, Diversity, Evolution, Host Range, and Distribution of Psittacine and Passerine Adenoviruses. Avian Pathol. 2019, 48, 437–443.
  44. Rinder, M.; Schmitz, A.; Baas, N.; Korbel, R. Molecular Identification of Novel and Genetically Diverse Adenoviruses in Passeriform Birds. Virus Genes. 2020, 56, 316–324.
  45. Joseph, H.M.; Ballmann, M.Z.; Garner, M.M.; Hanley, C.S.; Berlinski, R.; Erdélyi, K.; Childress, A.L.; Fish, S.S.; Harrach, B.; Wellehan, J.F.X. A Novel Siadenovirus Detected in the Kidneys and Liver of Gouldian Finches (Erythura gouldiae). Vet. Microbiol. 2014, 172, 35–43.
  46. Vaz, F.F.; Raso, T.F.; Agius, J.E.; Hunt, T.; Leishman, A.; Eden, J.-S.; Phalen, D.N. Opportunistic Sampling of Wild Native and Invasive Birds Reveals a Rich Diversity of Adenoviruses in Australia. Virus Evol. 2020, 6, veaa024.
  47. Keymer, I.F.; Blackmore, D.K. Diseases of the Skin and Soft Parts of Wild Birds. Br. Birds 1964, 57, 175–179.
  48. Lina, P.H.; van Noord, M.J.; de Groot, F.G. Detection of Virus in Squamous Papillomas of the Wild Bird Species Fringilla coelebs. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1973, 50, 567–571.
  49. Dom, P.; Ducatelle, R.; Charlier, G.; de Groot, P. Papillomavirus-like Infections in Canaries (Serinus canarius). Avian Pathol. 1993, 22, 797–803.
  50. Literak, I.; Smid, B.; Dusbabek, F.; Halouzka, R.; Novotny, L. Co-Infection with Papillomavirus and Knemidokoptes Jamaicensis (Acari: Knemidokoptidae) in a Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and a Case of Beak Papillomatosis in Another Chaffinch. Vet. Med. 2005, 50, 276–280.
  51. Osterhaus, A.D.; Ellens, D.J.; Horzinek, M.C. Identification and Characterization of a Papillomavirus from Birds (Fringillidae). Intervirology 1977, 8, 351–359.
  52. Prosperi, A.; Chiari, M.; Zanoni, M.; Gallina, L.; Casà, G.; Scagliarini, A.; Lavazza, A. Identification and Characterization of Fringilla coelebs Papillomavirus 1 (FcPV1) in Free-Living and Captive Birds in Italy. J. Wildl. Dis. 2016, 52, 756–758.
  53. Truchado, D.A.; Moens, M.A.J.; Callejas, S.; Pérez-Tris, J.; Benítez, L. Genomic Characterization of the First Oral Avian Papillomavirus in a Colony of Breeding Canaries (Serinus canaria). Vet. Res. Commun. 2018, 42, 111–120.
  54. Amery-Gale, J.; Marenda, M.S.; Owens, J.; Eden, P.A.; Browning, G.F.; Devlin, J.M. A High Prevalence of Beak and Feather Disease Virus in Non-Psittacine Australian Birds. J. Med. Microbiol. 2017, 66, 1005–1013.
  55. Circella, E.; Legretto, M.; Pugliese, N.; Caroli, A.; Bozzo, G.; Accogli, G.; Lavazza, A.; Camarda, A. Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease-like Illness in Gouldian Finches (Chloebia gouldiae). Avian Dis. 2014, 58, 482–487.
  56. Ahaduzzaman, M.; Nath, C.; Hossain, M.S. Evidence of Circulation of Beak and Feather Disease Virus in Captive Psittacine and Non-Psittacine Birds in Bangladesh. Arch. Virol. 2022, 167, 2567–2575.
  57. Todd, D.; Weston, J.; Ball, N.W.; Borghmans, B.J.; Smyth, J.A.; Gelmini, L.; Lavazza, A. Nucleotide Sequence-Based Identification of a Novel Circovirus of Canaries. Avian Pathol. 2001, 30, 321–325.
  58. Phenix, K.V.; Weston, J.H.; Ypelaar, I.; Lavazza, A.; Smyth, J.A.; Todd, D.; Wilcox, G.E.; Raidal, S.R. Nucleotide Sequence Analysis of a Novel Circovirus of Canaries and Its Relationship to Other Members of the Genus Circovirus of the Family Circoviridae. J. Gen. Virol. 2001, 82, 2805–2809.
  59. Rinder, M.; Schmitz, A.; Peschel, A.; Wörle, B.; Gerlach, H.; Korbel, R. Molecular Characterization of a Recently Identified Circovirus in Zebra Finches (Taeniopygia guttata) Associated with Immunosuppression and Opportunistic Infections. Avian Pathol. 2017, 46, 106–116.
  60. Stewart, M.E.; Perry, R.; Raidal, S.R. Identification of a Novel Circovirus in Australian Ravens (Corvus coronoides) with Feather Disease. Avian Pathol. 2006, 35, 86–92.
  61. Todd, D.; Scott, A.N.J.; Fringuelli, E.; Shivraprasad, H.L.; Gavier-Widen, D.; Smyth, J.A. Molecular Characterization of Novel Circoviruses from Finch and Gull. Avian Pathol. 2007, 36, 75–81.
  62. Truchado, D.A.; Diaz-Piqueras, J.M.; Gomez-Lucia, E.; Doménech, A.; Milá, B.; Pérez-Tris, J.; Schmidt-Chanasit, J.; Cadar, D.; Benítez, L. A Novel and Divergent Gyrovirus with Unusual Genomic Features Detected in Wild Passerine Birds from a Remote Rainforest in French Guiana. Viruses 2019, 11, 1148.
  63. Yao, Y.; Wu, H.; Sun, G.; Yang, S.; Shen, Q.; Wang, X.; Zhang, W. Identification of Diverse Novel Genomoviruses in Gut of Wild Birds. Biosaf. Health 2021, 3, 136–141.
  64. Hanna, Z.R.; Runckel, C.; Fuchs, J.; DeRisi, J.L.; Mindell, D.P.; Van Hemert, C.; Handel, C.M.; Dumbacher, J.P. Isolation of a Complete Circular Virus Genome Sequence from an Alaskan Black-Capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) Gastrointestinal Tract Sample. Genome Announc. 2015, 3, e01081-e15.
  65. Schmidlin, K.; Sepp, T.; Khalifeh, A.; Smith, K.; Fontenele, R.S.; McGraw, K.J.; Varsani, A. Diverse Genomoviruses Representing Eight New and One Known Species Identified in Feces and Nests of House Finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). Arch. Virol. 2019, 164, 2345–2350.
  66. Sikorski, A.; Massaro, M.; Kraberger, S.; Young, L.M.; Smalley, D.; Martin, D.P.; Varsani, A. Novel Myco-like DNA Viruses Discovered in the Faecal Matter of Various Animals. Virus Res. 2013, 177, 209–216.
  67. De Souza, W.M.; Dennis, T.; Fumagalli, M.J.; Araujo, J.; Sabino-Santos, G.; Maia, F.G.M.; Acrani, G.O.; Carrasco, A.D.O.T.; Romeiro, M.F.; Modha, S.; et al. Novel Parvoviruses from Wild and Domestic Animals in Brazil Provide New Insights into Parvovirus Distribution and Diversity. Viruses 2018, 10, 143.
  68. Fouchier, R.A.; Bestebroer, T.M.; Herfst, S.; Van Der Kemp, L.; Rimmelzwaan, G.F.; Osterhaus, A.D. Detection of Influenza A Viruses from Different Species by PCR Amplification of Conserved Sequences in the Matrix Gene. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 38, 4096–4101.
  69. Morishita, T.Y.; Aye, P.P.; Ley, E.C.; Harr, B.S. Survey of Pathogens and Blood Parasites in Free-Living Passerines. Avian Dis. 1999, 43, 549–552.
  70. Munster, V.J.; Baas, C.; Lexmond, P.; Waldenström, J.; Wallensten, A.; Fransson, T.; Rimmelzwaan, G.F.; Beyer, W.E.P.; Schutten, M.; Olsen, B.; et al. Spatial, Temporal, and Species Variation in Prevalence of Influenza A Viruses in Wild Migratory Birds. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3, e61.
  71. Swayne, D.E.; Suarez, D.L. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2000, 19, 463–482.
  72. Chang, H.; Dai, F.; Liu, Z.; Yuan, F.; Zhao, S.; Xiang, X.; Zou, F.; Zeng, B.; Fan, Y.; Duan, G. Seroprevalence Survey of Avian Influenza A (H5) in Wild Migratory Birds in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. Virol. J. 2014, 11, 18.
  73. Fuller, T.L.; Saatchi, S.S.; Curd, E.E.; Toffelmier, E.; Thomassen, H.A.; Buermann, W.; DeSante, D.F.; Nott, M.P.; Saracco, J.F.; Ralph, C.; et al. Mapping the Risk of Avian Influenza in Wild Birds in the US. BMC Infect. Dis. 2010, 10, 187.
  74. Kou, Z.; Lei, F.M.; Yu, J.; Fan, Z.J.; Yin, Z.H.; Jia, C.X.; Xiong, K.J.; Sun, Y.H.; Zhang, X.W.; Wu, X.M.; et al. New Genotype of Avian Influenza H5N1 Viruses Isolated from Tree Sparrows in China. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 15460–15466.
  75. Peterson, A.T.; Bush, S.E.; Spackman, E.; Swayne, D.E.; Ip, H.S. Influenza A Virus Infections in Land Birds, People’s Republic of China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 1644–1646.
  76. Shriner, S.A.; Root, J.J. A Review of Avian Influenza A Virus Associations in Synanthropic Birds. Viruses 2020, 12, 1209.
  77. European Food Safety Authority; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control; European Union Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza; Adlhoch, C.; Fusaro, A.; Gonzales, J.L.; Kuiken, T.; Marangon, S.; Niqueux, É.; Staubach, C.; et al. Avian Influenza Overview June–September 2022. EFS2 2022, 20, e7597.
  78. Schnebel, B.; Dierschke, V.; Rautenschlein, S.; Ryll, M.; Neumann, U. Investigations on Infection Status with H5 and H7 Avian Influenza Virus in Short-Distance and Long-Distance Migrant Birds in 2001. Avian Dis. 2007, 51, 432–433.
  79. Turan, N.; Ozsemir, C.; Yilmaz, A.; Cizmecigil, U.Y.; Aydin, O.; Bamac, O.E.; Gurel, A.; Kutukcu, A.; Ozsemir, K.; Tali, H.E.; et al. Identification of Newcastle Disease Virus Subgenotype VII.2 in Wild Birds in Turkey. BMC Vet. Res. 2020, 16, 277.
  80. Silva, B.R.; Gamon, T.H.; Campos, A.C.A.; Thomazelli, L.M.; Serafini, P.P.; Chiarani, E.; Silva, T.W.; Locatelli-Dittrich, R. Molecular Diagnosis of Avian Viruses in Grassland Passerines and Captive Yellow Cardinals Gubernatrix cristata in Brazil. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2021, 41, e06840.
  81. Orynbayev, M.B.; Fereidouni, S.; Sansyzbai, A.R.; Seidakhmetova, B.A.; Strochkov, V.M.; Nametov, A.M.; Sadikaliyeva, S.O.; Nurgazieva, A.; Tabynov, K.K.; Rametov, N.M.; et al. Genetic Diversity of Avian Avulavirus 1 (Newcastle Disease Virus Genotypes VIg and VIIb) Circulating in Wild Birds in Kazakhstan. Arch. Virol. 2018, 163, 1949–1954.
  82. Kariithi, H.M.; Christy, N.; Decanini, E.L.; Lemiere, S.; Volkening, J.D.; Afonso, C.L.; Suarez, D.L. Detection and Genome Sequence Analysis of Avian Metapneumovirus Subtype a Viruses Circulating in Commercial Chicken Flocks in Mexico. Vet. Sci. 2022, 9, 579.
  83. Greenacre, C.B. Viral Diseases of Companion Birds. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Exot. Anim. Pract. 2005, 8, 85–105.
  84. Fleury, H.J.; Alexander, D.J. Isolation of Twenty-Three Yucaipa-like Viruses from 616 Wild Birds in Senegal, West Africa. Avian Dis. 1979, 23, 742–744.
  85. Mbugua, H.C.; Karstad, L.; Thorsen, J. Isolation of Avian Paramyxoviruses (Yucaipa-like) from Wild Birds in Kenya, 1980–1982. J. Wildl. Dis. 1985, 21, 52–54.
  86. Nymadava, P.; Konstantinow-Siebelist, I.; Schulze, P.; Starke, S. Isolation of Paramyxoviruses from Free-Flying Birds of the Order Passeriformes in the German Democratic Republic. Acta Virol. 1977, 21, 443.
  87. Maldonado, A.; Arenas, A.; Tarradas, M.C.; Luque, I.; Astorga, R.; Perea, J.A.; Miranda, A. Serological Survey for Avian Paramyxoviruses from Wildfowl in Aquatic Habitats in Andalusia. J. Wildl. Dis. 1995, 31, 66–69.
  88. Goodman, B.B.; Hanson, R.P. Isolation of Avian Paramyxovirus-2 from Domestic and Wild Birds in Costa Rica. Avian Dis. 1988, 32, 713–717.
  89. Račnik, J.; Slavec, B.; Trilar, T.; Zadravec, M.; Dovč, A.; Krapež, U.; Barlič-Maganja, D.; Zorman Rojs, O. Evidence of Avian Influenza Virus and Paramyxovirus Subtype 2 in Wild-Living Passerine Birds in Slovenia. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 2008, 54, 529–532.
  90. Schemera, B.; Toro, H.; Kaleta, E.F.; Herbst, W. A Paramyxovirus of Serotype 3 Isolated from African and Australian Finches. Avian Dis. 1987, 31, 921–925.
  91. Shihmanter, E.; Weisman, Y.; Lublin, A.; Mahani, S.; Panshin, A.; Lipkind, M. Isolation of Avian Serotype 3 Paramyxoviruses from Imported Caged Birds in Israel. Avian Dis. 1998, 42, 829–831.
  92. Muzyka, D.; Pantin-Jackwood, M.; Stegniy, B.; Rula, O.; Bolotin, V.; Stegniy, A.; Gerilovych, A.; Shutchenko, P.; Stegniy, M.; Koshelev, V.; et al. Wild Bird Surveillance for Avian Paramyxoviruses in the Azov-Black Sea Region of Ukraine (2006 to 2011) Reveals Epidemiological Connections with Europe and Africa. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2014, 80, 5427–5438.
  93. Bennett, R.S.; Nezworski, J.; Velayudhan, B.T.; Nagaraja, K.V.; Zeman, D.H.; Dyer, N.; Graham, T.; Lauer, D.C.; Njenga, M.K.; Halvorson, D.A. Evidence of Avian Pneumovirus Spread beyond Minnesota among Wild and Domestic Birds in Central North America. Avian Dis. 2004, 48, 902–908.
  94. Shin, H.-J.; Njenga, M.K.; McComb, B.; Halvorson, D.A.; Nagaraja, K.V. Avian Pneumovirus (APV) RNA from Wild and Sentinel Birds in the United States Has Genetic Homology with RNA from APV Isolates from Domestic Turkeys. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 38, 4282–4284.
  95. Berg, M.; Johansson, M.; Montell, H.; Berg, A.L. Wild Birds as a Possible Natural Reservoir of Borna Disease Virus. Epidemiol. Infect. 2001, 127, 173–178.
  96. Rubbenstroth, D.; Rinder, M.; Stein, M.; Höper, D.; Kaspers, B.; Brosinski, K.; Horie, M.; Schmidt, V.; Legler, M.; Korbel, R.; et al. Avian Bornaviruses Are Widely Distributed in Canary Birds (Serinus canaria f. domestica). Vet. Microbiol. 2013, 165, 287–295.
  97. Rubbenstroth, D.; Schmidt, V.; Rinder, M.; Legler, M.; Corman, V.M.; Staeheli, P. Discovery of a New Avian Bornavirus Genotype in Estrildid Finches (Estrildidae) in Germany. Vet. Microbiol. 2014, 168, 318–323.
  98. Kato, M.; Okanoya, K. Molecular Characterization of the Song Control Nucleus HVC in Bengalese Finch Brain. Brain Res. 2010, 1360, 56–76.
  99. Hasegawa, T.; Takehara, Y.; Takahashi, K. Natural and Experimental Infections of Japanese Tree Sparrows with Japanese Encephalitis Virus. Arch. Virol. 1975, 49, 373–376.
  100. Day, J.F.; Stark, L.M. Avian Serology in a St. Louis Encephalitis Epicenter Before, During, and After a Widespread Epidemic in South Florida, USA. J. Med. Entomol. 1999, 36, 614–624.
  101. Díaz, A.; Flores, F.S.; Quaglia, A.I.; Contigiani, M.S. Evaluation of Argentinean Bird Species as Amplifying Hosts for St. Louis Encephalitis Virus (Flavivirus, Flaviviridae). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2018, 99, 216–221.
  102. Reisen, W.K.; Chiles, R.E.; Martinez, V.M.; Fang, Y.; Green, E.N. Experimental Infection of California Birds with Western Equine Encephalomyelitis and St. Louis Encephalitis Viruses. J. Med. Entomol. 2003, 40, 968–982.
  103. Gruwell, J.A.; Fogarty, C.L.; Bennett, S.G.; Challet, G.L.; Vanderpool, K.S.; Jozan, M.; Webb, J.P., Jr. Role of Peridomestic Birds on the Transmission of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus in Southern California. J. Wildl. Dis. 2000, 36, 13–34.
  104. Curren, E.J.; Lindsey, N.P.; Fischer, M.; Hills, S.L. St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Disease in the United States, 2003–2017. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2018, 99, 1074–1079.
  105. Chevalier, V.; Marsot, M.; Molia, S.; Rasamoelina, H.; Rakotondravao, R.; Pedrono, M.; Lowenski, S.; Durand, B.; Lecollinet, S.; Beck, C. Serological Evidence of West. Nile and Usutu Viruses Circulation in Domestic and Wild Birds in Wetlands of Mali. and Madagascar in 2008. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1998.
  106. Nikolay, B.; Diallo, M.; Boye, C.S.B.; Sall, A.A. Usutu Virus in Africa. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2011, 11, 1417–1423.
  107. Chvala, S.; Bakonyi, T.; Bukovsky, C.; Meister, T.; Brugger, K.; Rubel, F.; Nowotny, N.; Weissenböck, H. Monitoring of Usutu Virus Activity and Spread by Using Dead Bird Surveillance in Austria, 2003–2005. Vet. Microbiol. 2007, 122, 237–245.
  108. Bernard, K.A.; Maffei, J.G.; Jones, S.A.; Kauffman, E.B.; Ebel, G.; Dupuis, A.P.; Ngo, K.A.; Nicholas, D.C.; Young, D.M.; Shi, P.Y.; et al. West Nile Virus Infection in Birds and Mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 679–685.
  109. Bakonyi, T.; Ferenczi, E.; Erdélyi, K.; Kutasi, O.; Csörgő, T.; Seidel, B.; Weissenböck, H.; Brugger, K.; Bán, E.; Nowotny, N. Explosive Spread of a Neuroinvasive Lineage 2 West Nile Virus in Central Europe, 2008/2009. Vet. Microbiol. 2013, 165, 61–70.
  110. Jourdain, E.; Olsen, B.; Lundkvist, A.; Hubálek, Z.; Sikutová, S.; Waldenström, J.; Karlsson, M.; Wahlström, M.; Jozan, M.; Falk, K.I. Surveillance for West Nile Virus in Wild Birds from Northern Europe. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2011, 11, 77–79.
  111. López, G.; Jiménez-Clavero, M.A.; Tejedor, C.G.; Soriguer, R.; Figuerola, J. Prevalence of West Nile Virus Neutralizing Antibodies in Spain Is Related to the Behavior of Migratory Birds. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2008, 8, 615–621.
  112. Drennan, J.E. Northern Goshawk Food Habits and Goshawk Prey Species Habitats|Searchable Ornithological Research Archive. Stud. Avian Biol. 2006, 31, 198–218.
  113. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Species of Dead Birds in Which West Nile Virus Has Been Detected, United States, 1999–2016. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/westnile/resources/pdfs/birdspecies1999-2016.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2023).
  114. Estep, L.K.; McClure, C.J.W.; Burkett-Cadena, N.D.; Hassan, H.K.; Hicks, T.L.; Unnasch, T.R.; Hill, G.E. A Multi-Year Study of Mosquito Feeding Patterns on Avian Hosts in a Southeastern Focus of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 84, 718–726.
  115. Molaei, G.; Armstrong, P.M.; Graham, A.C.; Kramer, L.D.; Andreadis, T.G. Insights into the Recent Emergence and Expansion of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in a New Focus in the Northern New England USA. Parasit. Vectors 2015, 8, 516.
  116. Molaei, G.; Thomas, M.C.; Muller, T.; Medlock, J.; Shepard, J.J.; Armstrong, P.M.; Andreadis, T.G. Dynamics of Vector-Host Interactions in Avian Communities in Four Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Foci in the Northeastern U.S. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0004347.
  117. Andreadis, T.G.; Anderson, J.F.; Tirrell-Peck, S.J. Multiple Isolations of Eastern Equine Encephalitis and Highlands J Viruses from Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) during a 1996 Epizootic in Southeastern Connecticut. J. Med. Entomol. 1998, 35, 296–302.
  118. Hesson, J.C.; Lundström, J.O.; Tok, A.; Östman, Ö.; Lundkvist, Å. Temporal Variation in Sindbis Virus Antibody Prevalence in Bird Hosts in an Endemic Area in Sweden. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0162005.
  119. Lundström, J.O.; Lindström, K.M.; Olsen, B.; Dufva, R.; Krakower, D.S. Prevalence of Sindbis Virus Neutralizing Antibodies among Swedish Passerines Indicates That Thrushes Are the Main Amplifying Hosts. J. Med. Entomol. 2001, 38, 289–297.
  120. Whitehead, R.H.; Doderty, R.L.; Domrow, R.; Standfast, H.A.; Wetters, E.J. Studies of the Epidemiology of Arthropod-Borne Virus Infections at Mitchell River Mission, Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland. 3. Virus Studies of Wild Birns, 1964–1967. Trans. R Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1968, 62, 439–445.
  121. Jones, A.; Lowry, K.; Aaskov, J.; Holmes, E.C.; Kitchen, A. Molecular Evolutionary Dynamics of Ross River Virus and Implications for Vaccine Efficacy. J. Gen. Virol. 2010, 91, 182–188.
  122. Degallier, N.; Rosa, A.; Vasconcelos, P.F.C.; Hervé, J.-P.; Sá Filho, G.C.; Rosa, J.F.; Rosa, E.S.; Rodrigues, S.G. Modifications of Arbovirus Transmission in Relation to Construction of Dams in Brazilian Amazonia. Ciênc. Cult. 1992, 44, 124–135.
  123. Hoch, A.L.; Peterson, N.E.; LeDuc, J.W.; Pinheiro, F.P. An Outbreak of Mayaro Virus Disease in Belterra, Brazil. III. Entomological and Ecological Studies. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1981, 30, 689–698.
  124. Sanmartín, C.; Mackenzie, R.B.; Trapido, H.; Barreto, P.; Mullenax, C.H.; Gutiérrez, E.; Lesmes, C. Encefalitis Equina Venezolana En Colombia. Boletín Oficina Sanit. Panam. 1973, 74, 108–137.
  125. Calisher, C.H.; Gutiérrez, E.; Maness, K.S.; Lord, R.D. Isolation of Mayaro Virus from a Migrating Bird Captured in Louisiana in 1967. Bull. Pan. Am. Health Organ. 1974, 8, 243–248.
  126. Scott, T.W.; Bowen, G.S.; Monath, T.P. A Field Study on the Effects of Fort Morgan Virus, an Arbovirus Transmitted by Swallow Bugs, on the Reproductive Success of Cliff Swallows and Symbiotic House Sparrows in Morgan County, Colorado, 1976. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1984, 33, 981–991.
  127. Fassbinder-Orth, C.A.; Killpack, T.L.; Goto, D.S.; Rainwater, E.L.; Shearn-Bochsler, V.I. High Costs of Infection: Alphavirus Infection Reduces Digestive Function and Bone and Feather Growth in Nestling House Sparrows (Passer domesticus). PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0195467.
  128. O’Brien, V.A.; Meteyer, C.U.; Ip, H.S.; Long, R.R.; Brown, C.R. Pathology and Virus Detection in Tissues of Nestling House Sparrows Naturally Infected with Buggy Creek Virus (Togaviridae). J. Wildl. Dis. 2010, 46, 23–32.
  129. Miłek, J.; Blicharz-Domańska, K. Coronaviruses in Avian Species—Review with Focus on Epidemiology and Diagnosis in Wild Birds. J. Vet. Res. 2018, 62, 249–255.
  130. Woo, P.C.Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Lam, C.S.F.; Lai, K.K.Y.; Huang, Y.; Lee, P.; Luk, G.S.M.; Dyrting, K.C.; Chan, K.-H.; Yuen, K.-Y. Comparative Analysis of Complete Genome Sequences of Three Avian Coronaviruses Reveals a Novel Group 3c Coronavirus. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 908–917.
  131. Woo, P.C.Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Lam, C.S.F.; Lau, C.C.Y.; Tsang, A.K.L.; Lau, J.H.N.; Bai, R.; Teng, J.L.L.; Tsang, C.C.C.; Wang, M.; et al. Discovery of Seven Novel Mammalian and Avian Coronaviruses in the Genus Deltacoronavirus Supports Bat Coronaviruses as the Gene Source of Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus and Avian Coronaviruses as the Gene Source of Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 3995–4008.
  132. Woo, P.C.Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Huang, Y.; Lam, C.S.F.; Poon, R.W.S.; Tsoi, H.-W.; Lee, P.; Tse, H.; Chan, A.S.L.; Luk, G.; et al. Comparative Analysis of Six Genome Sequences of Three Novel Picornaviruses, Turdiviruses 1, 2 and 3, in Dead Wild Birds, and Proposal of Two Novel Genera, Orthoturdivirus and Paraturdivirus, in the Family Picornaviridae. J. Gen. Virol. 2010, 91, 2433–2448.
  133. Pankovics, P.; Boros, Á.; Phan, T.G.; Delwart, E.; Reuter, G. A Novel Passerivirus (Family Picornaviridae) in an Outbreak of Enteritis with High Mortality in Estrildid Finches (Uraeginthus sp.). Arch. Virol. 2018, 163, 1063–1071.
  134. Zylberberg, M.; Van Hemert, C.; Handel, C.M.; DeRisi, J.L. Avian Keratin Disorder of Alaska Black-Capped Chickadees Is Associated with Poecivirus Infection. Virol. J. 2018, 15, 100.
  135. Zylberberg, M.; Van Hemert, C.; Handel, C.M.; Liu, R.M.; DeRisi, J.L. Poecivirus Is Present in Individuals with Beak Deformities in Seven Species of North American Birds. J. Wildl. Dis. 2021, 57, 273–281.
  136. Fernández-Correa, I.; Truchado, D.A.; Gomez-Lucia, E.; Doménech, A.; Pérez-Tris, J.; Schmidt-Chanasit, J.; Cadar, D.; Benítez, L. A Novel Group of Avian Astroviruses from Neotropical Passerine Birds Broaden the Diversity and Host Range of Astroviridae. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 9513.
  137. Mendenhall, I.H.; Smith, G.J.D.; Vijaykrishna, D. Ecological Drivers of Virus Evolution: Astrovirus as a Case Study. J. Virol. 2015, 89, 6978–6981.
  138. Mendenhall, I.H.; Yaung, K.N.; Joyner, P.H.; Keatts, L.; Borthwick, S.; Neves, E.S.; San, S.; Gilbert, M.; Smith, G.J. Detection of a Novel Astrovirus from a Black-Naped Monarch (Hypothymis azurea) in Cambodia. Virol. J. 2015, 12, 182.
  139. French, R.K.; Stone, Z.L.; Parker, K.A.; Holmes, E.C. Novel Viral and Microbial Species in a Translocated Toutouwai (Petroica longipes) Population from Aotearoa/New Zealand. One Health Outlook 2022, 4, 16.
  140. Chang, W.-S.; Rose, K.; Holmes, E.C. Meta-Transcriptomic Analysis of the Virome and Microbiome of the Invasive Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristis) in Australia. One Health 2021, 13, 100360.
  141. Ursu, K.; Papp, H.; Kisfali, P.; Rigó, D.; Melegh, B.; Martella, V.; Bányai, K. Monitoring of Group A Rotaviruses in Wild-Living Birds in Hungary. Avian Dis. 2011, 55, 123–127.
  142. Duarte Júnior, J.W.B.; Chagas, E.H.N.; Serra, A.C.S.; Souto, L.C.D.S.; da Penha Júnior, E.T.; Bandeira, R.D.S.; e Guimarães, R.J.D.P.S.; Oliveira, H.G.D.S.; Sousa, T.K.S.; Lopes, C.T.D.A.; et al. Ocurrence of Rotavirus and Picobirnavirus in Wild and Exotic Avian from Amazon Forest. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2021, 15, e0008792.
  143. Varejka, F.; Tomsik, F. The Role of House Sparrow (Passer domesticus L.) in the Spread of Leukosis Viruses in Poultry. I. Determination of Neutralizing Antibodies. Acta Vet. Brno 1974, 43, 367–370.
  144. Jiang, L.; Zeng, X.; Hua, Y.; Gao, Q.; Fan, Z.; Chai, H.; Wang, Q.; Qi, X.; Wang, Y.; Gao, H.; et al. Genetic Diversity and Phylogenetic Analysis of Glycoprotein Gp85 of Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroup J Wild-Bird Isolates from Northeast China. Arch. Virol. 2014, 159, 1821–1826.
  145. Han, C.; Hao, R.; Liu, L.; Zeng, X. Molecular Characterization of 3’UTRs of J Subgroup Avian Leukosis Virus in Passerine Birds in China. Arch. Virol. 2015, 160, 845–849.
More
ScholarVision Creations