Recently, with the acceleration of the digitization process, distance learning is gaining an increasing role in education. Although distance education has been applied in higher education and non-formal education for a long time, it has been little spread or in most cases not applied at all in general education institutions. Distance learning/education has gained great interest during the COVID-19 pandemic which caused the greatest disruption of the education and training processes worldwide [1]. Distance education is defined “as an education system based on the Internet and interactive technologies to enable teachers and students from different locations to meet in real time” [2]. Schools all over the world faced the challenge of transferring the traditional education processes to digital platforms in a short period of time. In this context, school communities not only discovered the new opportunities of transforming the traditional education processes, but also encountered a number of problems when trying to provide high quality distance education and minimise learning losses for students.

Different countries have different experiences in organising distance education. Previous studies, focused on the effects of distance education, reveal that the very great difficulties were encountered by developing countries. Many previous studies highlight the negative effects of distance education not only on academic results, but also on the daily routines of students and their family members. The OECD [3] and UNESCO ^[4][5][4,5] analyse the negative effects of school closures on various aspects of students’ lives, including their health condition. The UNESCO [5] focuses on the special educational needs of the disabled students and emphasises the risk of exclusion and other social difficulties, faced by this group of students.

When implementing the project “Distance education of children during the COVID-19 pandemic: threats and opportunities from an ecosystem point of view: e-children”, the researchers from Vilnius University (VU) addressed the effects of distance education on the physical and mental development of the preschoolers and 1–8 grade students [6]. The research finds that distance education has had a negative impact on the students’ emotional state and physical health and has led to greater social isolation and lower motivation to study.

According to the UNESCO [4], the rapid transition to distance education has had a negative impact on the academic results and daily routines of the students from all social groups, especially socially vulnerable families. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions emphasises the economic problems: higher monetary and time costs of childcare and education. Some other studies tend to focus on the positive aspects of distance education [7].

2. The Negative Effects of Distance Education

Most previous studies tend to emphasise the negative effects of distance education on students’ learning and academic results. Some authors focus on lower motivation and its determinants. For instance, Seaman et al. [8] analysed the impact of distance learning on the results obtained in the higher education faculty, operating in the STEM area. Their study finds that most of the respondents had no experience of distance learning before the COVID-19 pandemic. The lack of motivation and academic integrity in the process of distance education were identified as the major problems. In addition, the study reveals the importance of the resources, such as computer technologies, a reliable Internet connection, etc., on the quality of distance education [9]. Skliarova et al. [10] conducted the study on the online teaching strategies appropriate for blended and face-to-face higher STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education at the university of Aveiro. The researchers note that a properly selected teaching strategy leads to greater students’ motivation and engagement, helps to build the positive relationship with students, and contributes to teacher and student satisfaction. The results of the empirical research also indicate that most of the respondents prefer studying in a physical place rather than at a distance; it is difficult to motivate students, ensure the feedback, and be in touch with students and colleagues. The teachers emphasise the importance of extra time: they need more time to properly prepare for distance teaching. The problem of unethical behaviour is also noticed. Skliarova et al. [11] researched the online teaching and learning practices from a students’ perspective. Their research finds that students’ motivation and engagement are greatly affected by the study environment: innovative, interactive, and attractive methods of distance education, shorter lessons, and more practical tasks. It should be noted that distance education is also associated with challenges: primarily, a loss of students’ concentration, a lack of a personal contact, and technical issues. Coman et al. [12] analysed the online teaching and learning from a students’ perspective in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers collected and analysed the answers provided by 762 students at two largest Romanian universities. They found that technical issues are the key challenge, followed by the problem of teachers lacking technical skills for distance education, and inappropriate teaching methods which are not adapted to the digital environment. The poor communication with teachers, as well as the lack of this communication, were categorised as least significant. Futterer et al. [13] investigated the components of the effective distance teaching, and analysed how it is affected by technology familiarity at secondary schools in Germany. The authors examined 729 reports, provided by 729 ninth-grade students who were enrolled for two subjects (mathematics and German). The findings revealed that merely being acquainted with technological tools is insufficient, and it is crucial to comprehend the benefits of technology in enhancing pedagogy in a virtual classroom, as is done in traditional face-to-face classrooms. Vit [14] investigated the impact of the pandemic-induced distance learning on the capacity of educational institutions to prevent learning losses in Hungary. Distance education led to a decrease in students’ physical activity, communication with peers, and a lack of personal space at home. Students tended to spend longer hours at their computers both during their lessons and free time, which could have led to sleep disorders and other mental health problems [15]. Cappelle et al. [16] focused on the effectiveness of distance learning in India during the COVID-19 pandemic. They investigated which technologies and distance learning methods were used after the school closures, and what effects they had on students and their parents. The analysis revealed that the perception of learning was affected by three major factors: the frequency of a teacher contact, the learning modality, and utilisation of the students’ free time. The author also notes the role of the state policies. They argue that the clear standard procedures for managing the digital content, as well as the effective implementation of these procedures, can positively affect the process of distance learning/teaching. The study provides the rapid assessment, based on the telephone survey. Bonal et al. [17] investigated the impact of the school closures on the learning gap observed between the children from different social backgrounds in Catalonia. The study was based on 35,419 responses, collected through an online survey which was administered to families with children aged 3–18 from 26 March to 30 March 2020. The study revealed that the children from different social backgrounds had different educational potential: the children from socially disadvantaged families had fewer opportunities for learning and extracurricular activities, while the children from the families with higher economic, social, and cultural capital tended to participate in the activities which could be transferred to the digital space (e.g., artistic activities, learning foreign languages, etc.). Nevertheless, the children from the families with lower economic, social, and cultural capital were more likely to engage in sports. When assessing how often parents tended to stop extracurricular activities for their children, the authors found that the families with lower economic capital were more likely to do that because of the higher costs. Vidergor [18] researched how teachers’ innovativeness affected their distance teaching autonomy, accountability, and practices. A total of 200 teachers, representing elementary and secondary schools in Israel, participated in the survey, and were asked to fill in a questionnaire. The results revealed that teachers’ work experience directly affected their self-innovativeness, with older and more experienced teachers perceiving themselves as more innovative in distance education, compared to less experienced colleagues. The second finding was that professional development tended to affect distance education practices but had no effect on teachers’ innovativeness. The study proposes that the increasing innovativeness of teachers can positively affect their autonomy and accountability and contribute to more high-quality distance education practices. Thus, the authors recommend directing the programs of professional development towards promoting teachers’ innovativeness and creating new combinations for hybrid teaching. Maatuk et al. [19] found that the quality and effectiveness of distance education are significantly affected by the technical and financial support, staff training, better working conditions, the technological basis, skills, copyright protection, and professional development. Their results also indicate that distance education tends to increase the workload, especially for learners. Although distance education requires additional financial and material resources, some positive aspects, such as improving computer literacy, can also be envisaged. For successful distance education, it is necessary to pay attention to the different basic preparation and motivation of the learners. Jusienė et al. [20] argued that distance education led to many challenges in terms of academic ethics because teachers hardly had any tools/methods to control their students. The tasks were not adapted to the mode of distance education, which made it easier for students to cheat. The academic ethics depended on the integrity of students, the attitudes of their parents, and the ability of teachers to lead and control their classes. Klisovska et al. [21] found that distance education posed many challenges to students because most of the work had to be done on the computer, while previously it had been done in notebooks. Thus, students needed some time to get used to the new system. Summarising, the literature analysis revealed the following negative aspects of distance education (see Table 1): Other studies, however, highlight the positive aspects of distance education.

3. The Positive Effects of Distance Education

Distance education became a necessary alternative to traditional education during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Smith [22], distance education offered certain advantages in this unusual period. Above all, distance education ensured the continuity of studying. Brown [23] argued that even if schools were physically closed, and students were isolated in their homes, distance education provided an opportunity to continue education, which helped to prevent a major break in education and supported the academic progress. In addition, distance education contributed to the use of digital technologies and digital literacy. Johnson [24] argued that this crisis forced schools and students to quickly adapt to the new reality and acquire the necessary digital skills. This can provide the long-term benefits as digital competences are becoming increasingly important nowadays. Jusienė and Būdienė et al. [20] found that distance education:

• reduced fatigue and the somatic symptoms, which are related to getting up early in the morning, a busy schedule, and the school stress, in some children (especially in grades 5–8);
• improved the digital competences of all children;

21] summarised that distance education is an excellent form of learning/teaching because it possesses many advantages, such as time saving and access to various materials, but it requires teachers’ dedication to encourage students to expand their knowledge, as well as students’ self-control and motivation. Distance education can become an effective educational model on the condition that the appropriate infrastructure, staff training, and flexible structures that facilitate decision making are developed even after the pandemic and informal communication channels are available ^{[24][27][28][29][30]}[24,27,28,29,30]. Summarising, the literature analysis revealed the following positive aspects of distance education (see Table 2):

• involved parents in the education of primary school students;
• allowed parents to get acquainted with the abilities and characteristics of their children in primary schools and pro-gymnasiums;

• improved parents-children relationship and children’s well-being, if parents experienced less work-related stress and had lower workload;
• created the natural preconditions for the development of teachers’ general and professional skills, in particular, in the areas of information and computer technologies, communication, self-management, and languages;
• forced teachers to refine and update the educational content and process with consideration of the necessity to shorten the screen time, availability of the new forms of resources and information, students’ digital competences, and the increased need for cooperation;
• facilitated the individualisation and differentiation of education, when different contact time was set for the motivated students with high learning potential, and the students with lower achievements and/or special educational needs who needed individual assistance;
• contributed to the renewal of the technical tools which could be used for both distance and face-to-face education;
• accelerated the supply of students and (partially) teachers with technical equipment for distance learning/teaching;
• allowed to test different distance learning/teaching platforms which could be used in the future;
• strengthened the cooperation between the school and the family—parents were involved in children’s education, common challenges shaped the positive attitudes of school administrators, teachers, and parents to mutual communication;
• highlighted the importance of a teacher’s work, and thus stimulated the respect for a teacher’s profession.

The study conducted by Gaidelys et al. [25] revealed the following positive aspects of distance education: when studying at home, students feel more comfortable, they can get the necessary help, record lessons, and review them later, and select a quiet and comfortable environment for studying. The authors also note that a safe home environment created the preconditions for students to feel psychologically calmer and safer. Distance education provides flexibility for students and teachers. As noted by Johnson [24], online classes allow students to learn at their own pace and reduce transportation and lost time costs. Teachers can adapt teaching materials to the needs of different students and use various interactive tools which stimulate students’ involvement in the teaching/learning process. Distance education can open new learning/teaching opportunities. According to the research by White et al. [26], virtual environments and learning/teaching platforms can provide access to a variety of educational resources regardless of a geographic location. This allows students to get to know different cultures and languages. Klisowska [ On balance, the literature analysis proposes that distance education has had both positive and negative effects. Thus, it would be relevant to have a comprehensive instrument which would allow to assess the multi-sided consequences of distance education.