3.5. Mee Seed Fat Content and Quality upon Storage
Mee seed fat content and its quality depend on the storage conditions of the extracted fat [27]. Changes in Mee seed fat content and quality upon storage at different durations and conditions were studied by researchers [28]. In their study, researchers have investigated the effect of storage medium and storage condition on the fat content and other fat parameters of Mee seeds. Researchers also proved that the fat content and its composition can be changed by storage conditions, duration, exposure to light, and other environmental factors. According to them, the fatty acid oxidation of seed fats can be seen during long-term storage. Postharvest handling and storage of Mee fruits and seeds affect the final composition and the quality of processed fat. Especially, Mee seed fat content and its quality depend on the storage conditions of the extracted fat [20]. Changes in Mee seed fat content and quality upon storage at different durations and conditions were studied by researchers [21]. In their study, researchers have investigated the effect of storage medium and storage condition on the fat content and other fat parameters of Mee seeds. Researchers also proved that the fat content and its composition can be changed by storage conditions, duration, exposure to light, and other environmental factors. According to them, the fatty acid oxidation of seed fats can be seen during long-term storage. Postharvest handling and storage of Mee fruits and seeds affect the final composition and the quality of processed fat. Especially, Penicillium and
Aspergillus fungi genera induce seed deterioration and degradation by forming toxic materials on poor storage conditions [29].
fungi genera induce seed deterioration and degradation by forming toxic materials on poor storage conditions [22].
4. Processing of Mee Seed Fat
4.1. Mechanical Press Fat Extraction
Mechanical press fat extraction uses a manual ram press or an engine-driven screw press to extract the fat. Mee seed fat extraction was conducted through a traditional screw-type fat expeller
[14][12]. Researchers have analyzed the fat-expelling efficiency of the machine. The seeds can be subjected to a different number of extractions through the expeller and thereby produce seed fat and seed cake mixture continuously during the process. The researchers had modified the screw-type expeller to improve the fat-extraction efficiency. The optimum fat yield and quality of the fat were determined by evaluating the refractive index, saponification value, iodine value, unsaponifiable matter, free fatty acid content, and specific gravity to assess the quality of the refined fat
[14][12]. Modified machine performances were evaluated. The crude fat yield of seeds, machine capacity, and energy consumption at different screw shaft speeds were calculated in th
ise study. For the crude fat yield, the highest yield was obtained at a screw speed of 90 rpm. The maximum fat yield of 35% was also achieved under this condition. There can be observed a correlation between the fat yield and the speed levels. The energy consumption is lowest at speeds of 90 and 120 rpm.
4.2. Solvent Oil Extraction (Chemical Extraction)
4.2. Solvent Oil Extraction (Chemical Extraction)
The fat is extracted from the solid through a leaching process using a liquid solvent. The chemical extraction using the n-hexane method gives the highest fat yield
[35][23]. The chemical extraction method was considered an effective method because it extracts higher fat yield and due to its reliable performance. The chemical extraction of Mee fat has been conducted using different solvents and different time periods according to the AOAC method
[12][10]. The extractions were carried out for 6 h, 5 h, and 4 h. The solvents n-Hexane (bp. 65–70 °C) and petroleum ether (bp. 40–60 °C) were tested in the study. Four hours of extraction time with n-hexane can be used as the method provides better Mee fat extract efficiency with good quality. The rate of solvent extraction depends on many factors such as particle size, the type of solvent used, temperature, and agitation speed. According to the reports, solvent extraction is only economical in large-scale fat extractions.
4.3. Ultrasonic-Assisted Bio-Oil Extraction
The effect of ultrasonic-assisted extraction for Mee seeds through optimizing conventional solvent extraction procedures was studied
[31][24]. Ground Mee seed powder was mixed with different solvents to study the extraction process. Both single solvents and combinations of solvents were tested. There, diethyl ether/ethanol, chloroform/methanol, and isopropanol/methanol were used as solvent combinations in suitable proportions. Investigations were performed to optimize various parameters like temperature, extraction time, type of solvent, solvent ratio, potassium chloride, and hydrochloric acid concentrations of the extracted fat. Further increases in fat extraction from Mee seeds were achieved through the ultrasonic-assisted extraction method. They characterized Mee fat by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and studied the fat characteristics. Through solvent extraction, a 77.9% fat yield was obtained from Mee seeds. Their mixed solvents, diethyl ether, and ethanol were taken in a 3:1 ratio at 50 °C for 20 min. as the extraction medium. This fat yield was increased while performing the ultrasonic-assisted solvent extraction. The extracted Mee fat yield was observed as 82% in ultrasonic-assisted solvent extraction. GC–MS confirmed that the Mee fat contains octadecenoic acid.
5. Potential Industrial Applications of Mee Seed Fat
5.1. Stir Frying Application
Sensory evaluations were conducted for Mee fat and coconut fat for frying purposes. There, Mee fat and coconut fat were compared with each other for deep-fat frying and stir-frying of french fries using the above two types of fat
[12][10]. Taste, odor, mouth feel and organoleptic acceptability were evaluated as sensory attributes. The test results show that in the stir-frying method, there was no significant difference (
p > 0.05) between Mee fat and coconut oil for the evaluated sensory attributes. According to th
ise research, Mee fat has a good potential as cooking fat. During the frying process the Δ5-avenasterol present in Mee fat helps to protect fat from oxidative polymerization
[3].
5.2. An Alternative Ingredient for Halal Fats
The potential of Mee fat as an alternative ingredient for halal fats (fats which are permitted under the Islamic Law and which Muslims are allow to eat without any punishment) was tested by some researchers
[36,37][25][26]. Pork fat is a common halal fat used in food processing that has an animal origin. Mee fat is a plant-based non-halal fat with good processing potential. Studies show that pork fat has more unsaturated fatty acids (USFA) than saturated fatty acids (SFA). Oleic acid (38.24%) is the major fatty acid in pork fat. Other fatty acids available in pork fat are palmitic (22.68%) and linoleic (20.39%) acids. In Mee fat, major fatty acids are oleic (44.02%), stearic (22.05%), and palmitic (20.88%) acids. But, it has a very small amount of linoleic acid (7.85%) compared to pork fat. Mee fat has a higher saturated fatty acid content (42.93%) compared to pork fat (36.62%). Fractionation results in stearin fractions (solid) and olein fractions (liquid) of the fat. In the above study, the basic physico-chemical parameters of pork fat, Mee fat, and their fractions were evaluated. Their slip melting point (SMP), cloud point (CP), and iodine value (IV) were analyzed and compared with each other. The results show that Mee fat has a higher SMP value compared to pork fat. Compared to native samples, stearin fractions had a higher SMP. The SMP of pork fat stearin (45.75 °C) was lower than Mee fat stearin (46.50 °C). CP values were used to evaluate the thermal characteristics of olein fractions. Pork fat olein has a lower CP compared to Mee fat olein. IV represents the degree of unsaturation of fats. Pork fat shows an IV of 73.80 while Mee fat shows an IV of 61.10. When considering stearin fraction, pork fat has a lower IV than Mee fat stearin. However, pork fat olein has a higher IV value compared to Mee fat olein. Th
ise study reports some common thermal characteristics of pork fat and Mee fat. Both fats have thermal transitions at low and high temperatures, and these fats yield solid stearin and liquid olein. Both pork fat and Mee fat display similar saturated fatty acid profiles between 0 °C to 25 °C. Therefore, Mee fat could be used as an alternative ingredient for halal fats.
5.3. A cocoa Butter Substitute
Mee fat has a similar fatty acid profile to cocoa butter
[3,39,40,41][3][27][28][29]. The high levels of oleic and stearic acids in Mee fat give it the suitability to be a cocoa butter substitute
[42,43][30][31]. Therefore, Mee fat has the potential to produce chocolates, confectionery products, and shortenings.
5.4. Development of Food Packaging Material
Food packaging films made out of antimicrobial compounds are important in food safety to protect food from microbial contamination and increase its shelf life
[10][9]. Petroleum-based polymeric substances such as polyethylene, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinylchloride, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyamides are the most common packaging materials. Due to environmental concerns, bio-based polymer films are successful alternatives for food packaging due to their easy availability, low cost, and biodegradability. But, these polymers lack tensile strength and water absorption. These can be controlled by combining them with other polymeric substances which improve the desired characteristics of the film. Pure polysaccharides can composite with nanoparticles such as AgO, TiO
2, and ZnO according to research data available. Other than that, plant extracts such as neem, papain, grape, and green tea extract also have moderate to very good antibacterial activity and could be incorporated in food-packaging developments.
5.5. Pharmaceutical Product Manufacturing
Natural products are gaining a high demand in the present in many industrial fields. Medicinal product manufacturing is one of them. The major components of a medicinal cream are the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and the excipient. The excipients sometimes act as “non-active agents” and also have been found to enhance the activity of the API. Agar, alginates, cellulose, gelatin, guar gum, pectin, starch, and xanthan gum are some of the natural pharmaceutical excipients used in the pharmaceutical products manufacturing industry. They are composed of therapeutic supplementary properties and also have applications such as binding agents, coating material, disintegrating agents, gelling agents, stabilizers, sustaining agents, thickening agents, etc.
5.6. Formulation of Coating Binders
The development of polyetherimide-based corrosion-protective polyurethane coating from Mee fat was carried out
[45][32]. The Mee fat was successfully used in the preparation of polyetherimide resin (MPEA)-derived polyurethanes. There, Mee fat was converted to fatty amide (MFA) and then converted into polyetherimide (MPEA). The synthesized materials were characterized by spectroscopic methods. It possesses good coating properties such as gloss, pencil hardness, and thermal stability. Mee fat-based polyurethane resins have excellent potential properties for use in the formulation of coating binders. The prepared coatings applied on metal and particle board panels and the performance of the coatings were analyzed and found to be suitable as an anticorrosive coating material.
5.7. Biodiesel Production
Mee fat also has good potential in biodiesel production and can partially replace petroleum diesel. Due to less environmental pollution, low-cost biomass receives attention in biodiesel manufacture. Vegetable fats such as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, and safflower are generally used to prepare biodiesel
[46][33]. Biomass is one of the technically and economically feasible options against fossil fuels. Biofuel can also be used in any mixture with fossil fuels because of their similar characteristics. This includes common straight fatty acids such as palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3)
[47][34]. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) of seed fat are utilized as a substitute fuel in a diesel engine.
6. Therapeutic Potential and Nutritional Properties of Mee Seed Fat
Mee can be considered a medicinal plant with a good pharmacological profile. It provides potent aid for its future clinical uses in modern medicine
[7]. Mee (
Madhuca longifolia) seed fat has a number of medicinal and nutritional properties. Many researchers have reported on the anti-inflammatory property, anti-cancer properties, hypoglycemic properties, anti-ulcer activity, laxative properties, etc. of Mee seed fat
[42,53,54][30][35][36]. The anti-inflammatory action of Mee on rats was also evaluated by a research group
[55][37]. Mee fat also has demulcent properties. Therefore, it can be used to treat skin diseases, rheumatism, headache, laxative, and piles, and also as a galactagogue. The ethanol extract and saponin blend of Mee seeds was evaluated for anti-inflammatory action using acute, sub-acute, and chronic models of inflammation in rats
[56][38]. There, ethanol extract and a saponin mixture of Mee at a different dose level was studied. The edema caused by carrageenan in the acute model of inflammation was significantly reduced by the above mixture. Both extracts had a more effective response than the reference drug in the sub-acute inflammation model. Results prove the significant anti-inflammatory activity of
M. longifolia saponins. An in vitro study on the anticancer activity of different extracts of Mee seeds against human cancer cell lines was experimented with and evaluates the cell growth inhibition
[57][39]. The study found that various extracts of Mee seeds have very good to moderate anticancer activity.