DNA damage has been linked to autophagy via ATR/Chk1/RhoB-mediated lysosomal recruitment of the TSC complex and subsequent mTORC1 suppression. UV light (UV) or the alkylating chemical methyl methane sulphonate (MMS) damage DNA, causing Chk1 to phosphorylate the small GTPase RhoB. Phosphorylation of RhoB boosts its interaction with TSC2 and sumoylation by PIAS1, both of which are essential for the RhoB/TSC complex to translocate to lysosomes. mTORC1 is thereby blocked, and autophagy is induced. RhoB knockout drastically reduces TSC complex lysosomal translocation and DNA damage-induced autophagy, both of which are dependent on ATR–Chk1-mediated RhoB phosphorylation and sumoylation
[71][62]. By acting on the transcriptional factor GATA4, ATR has also been associated with transcription regulation
[72][63], which is susceptible to degradation by the autophagy-related factor p62 (also known as sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1)). In fibroblasts, ATR has been reported to have a negative effect on p62
[73][64]. In addition, a reduction in GATA4 levels and changes in gene expression associated with senescence and inflammation are observed when cells are treated with an ATR inhibitor
[73][64].
6. The cis-ATR Anti-Apoptotic Role Drives Oncogenesis in Dividing Cells
Cancer is characterized by deregulated cell proliferation, which develops when there is an imbalance in the normal cell cycle regulation to govern the pace and integrity of cell division and growth. Furthermore, because
cis-ATR has antiapoptotic properties, scholars surmise that it may have an oncogenic role, whereas Pin1 may have tumor-suppressive properties in relation to ATR’s anti-apoptotic activity at the mitochondria. If
cis-ATR is the dominant cytoplasmic form, it may inhibit mitochondrial apoptosis, allowing injured cells to survive and mutate even when DNA damage repair is insufficient, and the aberrant cells are intended to die by apoptosis. This evasion of apoptosis is a key feature of cancer cells, allowing them to accumulate the mutations that define genomic instability and, eventually, carcinogenesis. However, if Pin1 activity is elevated and
trans-ATR is the dominant form of ATR in the cytoplasm, programmed death will occur in cells that are too badly damaged for effective DNA repair before mutations can be transmitted. Thus, lowering cytosolic
cis-ATR prevents the accumulation of cells with DNA damage, which could be passed on to daughter cells and induce carcinogenesis.
The current knowledge is based mostly on data showing that Pin1 is overexpressed/activated in most malignancies and cancer stem cells, with correspondingly poor prognoses
[72,74,75,76,77,78,79,80][63][65][66][67][68][69][70][71]. Pin1 also promotes the expression of multiple oncogenes while suppressing the expression of several tumor suppressor genes
[81][72]. Pin1 overexpression or activation can be blocked genetically or chemically with juglone
[82][73], all-trans retinoic acid
[34][31] (ATRA), or KPT-6566
[83][74], and Pin1 inhibitors have been shown to reduce malignancies when tested
[84,85,86,87,88,89,90][75][76][77][78][79][80][81]. However, chemically suppressing Pin1 presents numerous complications, particularly with retinoids (e.g., ATRA), the most used clinical inhibitor. Low medication bioavailability, clinical relapse, and retinoid resistance are examples of these
[91,92,93,94,95][82][83][84][85][86].
Following UV-induced DNA damage, the phosphatase PP2A dephosphorylates ATR at Ser428. Following UV irradiation, PP2A was shown to be involved in the decrease of pATR (S428) in the cytoplasm
[64][55]. Because Pin1 function needs the Ser428–Pro429 recognition site in ATR to be phosphorylated, PP2A inhibits Pin1 activity by depleting cytoplasmic pATR at S428. Another layer of regulatory complexity to the DDR process is associated with this PP2A monitoring for ATR phosphorylation at the Pin1 motif recognition. In the event of DNA damage, PP2A interacts with ATR to dephosphorylate its Pin 1 recognition motif to prevent further isomerization of cis to trans ATR in the cytoplasm, resulting in accumulation of cis ATR-H in the cytoplasm. It was found that the accumulation of cis ATRH in the cytoplasm and mitochondria, following DNA damage, is associated with PP2A activity. Mitochondrial translocation ATR-H is an antiapoptotic protein that interacts with tBid to inhibit apoptosis activation and to reduce apoptotic cell death caused by DNA damage
[64][55].
7. ATR as Therapeutic Target
7.1. Chemotherapeutic Effect by ATR–CHK1 Inhibition
The ability of ATR to limit oncogenesis in its early stages, by acting as a barrier to the proliferation of aberrant cells, occurs principally through p53 activation. The activation may lead to DNA repair and checkpoint arrest
[102][87]. The fundamental theory is that ATR/CHK1 inhibitors, particularly in p53-deficient cells, increase tumor cell death by cytotoxic drugs or radiation by interrupting cell cycle checkpoints
[103,104][88][89]. UCN-01 (7-hydroxystaurosporine) is the first CHK1 inhibitor with broad-spectrum activity against the protein kinase C family. In addition, UCN-01 lacks selectivity and has a long half-life, limiting its potential applications, since it binds to alpha acidic glycoprotein, which causes hyperglycemia, and has a long half-life
[105,106][90][91]. XL844, an ATP-competitive inhibitor of CHK1, CHK2, VEGFR-2, and VEGFR-3, is quite effective. XL844 is designed to prevent CDC25A degradation, bypass S-Phase checkpoints, and increase DNA damage when used with gemcitabine. In the case of xenografts and in vitro, XL844 increases gemcitabine activity. The clinical study of XL844NCT00479175 and NCT00234481 was called off for reasons that are not yet known
[107,108][92][93].
7.2. ATR Kinase Inhibitors
ATR belongs to the PI3K-related kinase (PIKK) family of enzymes, along with ATM, mTOR, DNA-PKcs, SMG1, and PI3K (Phosphatidyl Inositol 3 Kinase). Caffeine was the first ATR inhibitor to be identified that disrupted DNA damage induced cell cycle arrest and sensitized cells with DNA damage
[117,128][94][95]. However, since the concentrations that prevent ATR and ATM are toxic, this medicine cannot be used in clinical trials, as it is also preventing ATM and PI3K family members.
The first potent and selective inhibitor, VE821, was reported by Vertex Pharmaceuticals in 2011. In comparison to ATM, PI3K, DNA-PK, and mTOR
[129][96], VE-821 has >100-fold greater selectivity for ATR, and its analog VE-822 (VX-970) has been further enhanced with higher solubility, potency, selectivity, and pharmacodynamic characteristics. Preclinical studies showed that these agents potently sensitize several cancer cells lines to cisplatin, ionizing radiation, gemcitabine, PARP inhibitors, and topoisomerase I poisons etoposide and oxaliplatin in vitro
[130,131,132,133,134,135][97][98][99][100][101][102].
Very selective, potent ATR inhibitors are also in development by AstraZeneca. In 2103, AZ20 was first reported
[43][41]. The analog of AZ20, AZD6738, was described in 2013 as an orally accessible drug with improved solubility and pharmacodynamic qualities
[136][103]. Compared to other types of PIKK, AZD6738’s selectivity is excellent for ATR
[137][104].
7.3. ATR Kinase Inhibitors in Clinical Trials
In 2009, the first report on ATR-selective small-molecule inhibitors was published
[118][105]. Schisandrin B, a naturally occurring dibenzo cyclooctadiene lignan found in the medicinal herb
Schisandra chinensis, was found to be a selective inhibitor of ATR
[118][105]. Schisandrin B inhibited UV-induced intra-S-phase and G2/M cell cycle checkpoints, and the cytotoxicity in human lung cancer cells was increased upon UV radiation. The inhibitory potency against ATR, on the other hand, was modest and required the use of large drug concentrations (30 M for cellular tests).
A more potent ATR inhibitor, NU6027, was reported in 2011 and was demonstrated to sensitize several breast and ovarian cancer cell lines to IR (insulin resistance) and several chemotherapeutic agents. However, this drug was originally created as a CDK2 inhibitor and is not ATR selective.
Toledo et al. also published the findings of a cell-based chemical library screening technique for the identification of effective ATR inhibitors in 2011
[34][31]. One of the compounds identified to possess significant inhibitory activity against ATR kinase was NVP-BEZ235, a drug originally introduced as a highly potent dual inhibitor of PI3K and MTOR with considerable in vivo anti-tumor activity
[140][106]. NVP-BEZ235 has been demonstrated to be markedly radiosensitive to Ras-overexpressing tumors
[141][107].
Vertex Pharmaceuticals discovered the first class of effective and selective ATR kinase inhibitors during a high-throughput screening strategy
[133][100]. VE-821 was found to be a powerful inhibitor of ATP-like effects on ATR, but it had little to no interaction with other PIKKs such as ATM, DNA, and MTOR
[44][42]. In the colorectal cancer cell line HCT116, VE-821 reduced phosphorylation of the ATR downstream target CHK1 at Ser345 and showed excellent constructive collaboration with genotoxic drugs from several classes. Chemosensitization was particularly evident with DNA cross-linking agents such as cisplatin, and it was further improved by p53 knockdown in ATM-deficient cells or in conjunction with the specific ATM inhibitor KU-55933.
AstraZeneca’s AZD6738 is a second ATR inhibitor now in clinical development. AZD6738 is an analogue of AZ20, a strong and selective ATR inhibitor that has been demonstrated to have significant single agent activity in vivo at well-tolerated doses in MRE 11A-deficient LVO xenografts
[42,146][40][108]. AZD6738 possesses significantly improved solubility, bioavailability, and pharmacokinetic properties compared to AZ20 and is suitable for oral dosing
[140][106]. In vitro, it suppresses the phosphorylation of the ATR downstream target CHK1 while boosting the phosphorylation of the DNA DSB marker γH2AX. The combination of this compound with carboplatin or IR has shown significantly increased antitumor growth inhibitory activity in in vivo studies. AZD6738 also showed single-agent anti-tumor efficacy in ATM-deficient but not ATM-proficient xenograft mice
[136,147][103][109]. This anti-tumor effect was linked to a sustained rise in γH2AX staining in tumor tissue but only a transient increase in normal tissues such as bone marrow or the gut. This shows that a positive therapeutic index might be obtained, which is optimistic for the future clinical development of this drug.
8. ATR Isomerization Potential Therapeutic Target
The most commonly used ATR inhibitors in cancer clinical studies are specific inhibitors of the enzyme ATR kinase, which plays a key role in the DNA damage checkpoint function of ATR in the nucleus. These inhibitors have no effect on
cis-ATR’s antiapoptotic activity, since the new inhibitor of
cis-ATR at mitochondria, which is independent from ATR kinase activation
[63][54], is not affected. Such a protein target that is novel and effective in the treatment of cancer could be
cis-ATR (ATR-H), potentially.
Cis-ATR is not, as a matter of principle, mutagenic, but it allows cancer cells to evade apoptotic activation, which is particularly important for carcinogenesis. Cancerous cells may be resistant to death because they contain proportionally more cytoplasmic
cis-ATR than healthy cells, especially when exposed to chemo- or radiotherapy, or because they have less Pin1 or less Ser428 phosphorylation in ATR
[148][110]. In support, reduced levels of pSer428 ATR in the cytoplasm of advanced epithelial ovarian cancer cells are correlated with poor prognosis
[149][111]. As a result, using irradiation or chemotherapy to target
cis-ATR as an adjuvant treatment for cancer should preferentially kill
cis-ATR-dependent cancer cells while having little influence on the normal activities of nuclear
trans-ATR in cells. To guarantee cellular survival and normality, ATR is a crucial protein
[31][30] that consists of cis and trans isomers that are normally active but exist in a fragile balance.
9. Conclusions
The cellular functions of ATR are supported by two major activities: its kinase activity, and kinase-independent antiapoptotic activity directly at the mitochondria. ATR functions as a basal kinase and is an important part of repairing DNA, regulating the cell cycle, and apoptosis. It has a wide variety of therapeutic functions. In conclusion, ATR kinase has emerged as a promising target for cancer therapy, and the area of ATR inhibition (ATRi) is quickly expanding, with multiple early-phase clinical studies now underway.