The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe enacted Recommendation REC (2006)19 [1], urging the Member States of the European Union to implement policies that promote positive parenting. This approach focuses on parents meeting the basic needs of their children, fostering healthy, stable, and secure emotional bonds, as well as providing a well-structured family context characterized by adequate parental supervision and the establishment of clear and flexible rules [2]. However, the same Recommendation highlights other principles of positive parenting, such as stimulating and supporting children’s learning and everyday activities, promoting their capabilities, recognizing and showing interest in their world, and, above all, raising them without violence. The security and emotional attachment established through positive parenting play a crucial role in the development and wellbeing of children. This novel perspective on positive parental engagement underpins any endeavor aimed at enhancing the parental role, thereby influencing the development and education of children. Furthermore, attachment theory [3] elucidates the formation and sustenance of the attachment bond as an intrinsic motivational system for seeking emotional security, protection, and regulation during stressful situations.

For Bowlby [3] and Ainsworth [4], secure attachment is characterized by trust in the caregivers’ availability and sensitivity, providing children with a sense of emotional security and protection. Various researchers highlight the fundamental importance of the attachment relationship between parents and children for the child’s adaptation, beginning from the early years of life [5]. Subsequent studies have reaffirmed the significance of secure attachment in emotional regulation and the construction of a positive self-perception in adulthood ^[6][7][6,7]. The findings of Clark and Symons [8] indicate that establishing secure attachment is essential for children to experience a realistic and comfortable self-perception. Likewise, it has been evidenced that secure attachment patterns have a positive impact on social relationships and more adaptive aspects of self-image [9]. Self-concept refers to an individual’s perception and understanding of themselves, encompassing their physical characteristics, abilities, social roles, beliefs, and values. It is a cognitive construction that influences how we perceive, evaluate, and behave in various life situations. The self-concept can comprise diverse dimensions, such as self-image (how we perceive ourselves physically), self-esteem (how we assess our own value), the skills and competencies we perceive ourselves to possess, and beliefs about our personal qualities. In this vein, the significance of positive parenting and secure attachment relationships has been emphasized in laying the foundation for healthy adaptation and optimal psychological development throughout life [10], and secure attachment has a positive influence on life satisfaction [11].

Secure attachment provides a solid foundation for resilience in the face of adversity. Grotberg [12] states that resilience is an inherent capacity in all human beings to confront the difficulties and challenges of life, to successfully cope with them, or even to be positively transformed by them. It is not an isolated individual characteristic but a combination of internal and external factors. Three factors are associated with resilience: individual characteristics such as self-efficacy and self-esteem, family support, and support from someone outside the family ^[13][14][13,14]. Thus, children with secure attachment tend to develop greater ability to cope with stressful situations and recover from traumatic experiences; it acts as an emotional buffer that enables them to face life’s challenges with greater effectiveness and adaptability ^[13][15][16][13,15,16]. Furthermore, the most resilient children and adolescents come from families with better functioning and receive more guidance and supervision from their parents and other family adults [17].

Secure attachment is closely related to positive self-esteem, particularly with the presence of secure support in close relationships [4]. Positive self-esteem refers to a person’s positive perception and evaluation of themselves [18]. It involves having a self-image as someone deserving of love, respect, and consideration, and feeling competent and capable in various areas of life. In this context, research has explored the “secure-base script”, an internal mental model related to secure attachment, and how it can influence a person’s positive self-esteem [6], or how peer relationships and perceptions of security in the mother–child relationship are related to self-esteem [19]. Furthermore, the stability of self-esteem over time has been demonstrated, suggesting that early experiences of secure attachment can have a lasting impact on a person’s self-esteem [20].

Despite the relationship between attachment and self-concept, as well as with resilience and positive self-esteem, having been the subject of research with significant findings, a lack of clear evidence regarding the specific role of resilience and positive self-esteem in the connection between attachment security and self-concept has been identified. This research aims to fill this gap, highlighting the importance of understanding how parenting processes, particularly an appropriate model of attachment security, influence the development of self-concept in individuals. However, for a deeper understanding of this relationship, it is essential to consider the mediating role of resilience and positive self-esteem. It is postulated that well-developed resilience and positive self-esteem can act as protective factors, enabling individuals to effectively and adaptively face life’s challenges and, in turn, influence the formation and consolidation of a more solid and positive self-concept. Thus, the complex interaction between attachment security, resilience, and positive self-esteem may be crucial for a more comprehensive understanding of identity development and self-perception in the context of parenting experiences.

In essence, parenting significantly impacts personal development, such that secure attachment content influences coping traits and adult perceptions. Secure attachment plays a role in shaping how we approach challenges, crises, and traumas in the future. Rooted in secure upbringing, the capacity to effectively confront reality is heightened, as coping strategies have been comprehended and practiced as a developmental process.

2. Perceived Security in Childhood on Adult Self-Concept

2.1. Secure Attachment and Self-Concept

The relationship between secure attachment and self-concept is a complex interaction that has been addressed by various authors in the scientific literature. Researchers have investigated how secure and insecure attachment styles in childhood are related to the formation of self-concept in adolescence and have found that adolescents with secure attachment tend to develop a more positive and coherent self-concept [21]. In this regard, Maunder and Hunter [22] have examined how early experiences of secure attachment influence emotional self-regulation and the perception of oneself as competent and capable in social and emotional situations. Emotional self-regulation is understood as an individual’s ability to recognize, comprehend, and manage their own emotions effectively. Paying attention to self-concept becomes an essential task, especially during adolescence, where it intertwines with the assertion of identity, decision making, and the search for independence and autonomy [23]. Parental and family bonds exert a significant influence on the development of self-concept [24], and this is manifested through various modes of parental socialization [25], the type of communication between parents and children [26], the style of affectionate upbringing [27], or the family atmosphere [28]. Higgins’ theory of self-concept regulation has also highlighted how experiences of secure attachment influence the way individuals process and organize information about themselves, affecting the coherence and stability of self-concept [29]. In this line of research, studies have shown how attachment styles affect self-esteem and self-perception in situations of intimacy and emotional closeness [30]. These studies suggest that secure attachment in infancy plays a fundamental role in the formation and development of self-concept throughout life. The quality of early relationships with primary caregivers influences how individuals perceive themselves, develop a positive self-image, and maintain coherence and stability in their personal identity.

2.2. Secure Attachment, Resilience, and Self-Concept

Secure attachment has a significant impact on the development of resilience in individuals, which in turn influences self-concept. It has been demonstrated that the quality of secure attachment in infancy is positively associated with higher levels of resilience in adulthood [31]. Secure attachment provides a foundation for individuals to cope with adverse situations, enabling them to develop greater self-confidence and belief in their abilities to confront and overcome challenges (resilience). Additionally, Masten and Reed suggested that resilience is a dynamic process that can be modified and strengthened throughout life, even in response to negative experiences [32]. This implies that secure attachment in infancy not only promotes the initial development of resilience but can also continue to nourish and enhance this adaptive capacity in later stages of life. Likewise, resilience has a direct impact on individuals’ self-concept. Studies have revealed that individuals with higher levels of resilience tend to have a more positive self-image and greater self-confidence [33]. The ability to effectively cope with challenges and overcome adversities reinforces a positive perception of oneself as capable and competent individuals. In this regard, research by Infurna and Luthar has shown that resilience protects against the development of negative self-esteem, even during times of stress or difficulties [34]. Thus, resilience acts as a protective factor that mitigates the negative effects of adverse experiences on self-concept, enabling individuals to maintain a positive and healthy self-image. Secure attachment plays an essential role in the development of resilience, which in turn influences individuals’ self-concept. Early experiences of secure attachment provide a solid emotional foundation for the development of resilience throughout life, which, in turn, contributes to a more positive self-image, greater self-confidence, and, consequently, fewer maladaptive schemas [35].

2.3. Secure Attachment, Positive Self-Esteem, and Self-Concept

Secure attachment and self-esteem have been extensively investigated from various theoretical perspectives and by different authors. Self-determination theory has highlighted the importance of secure attachment in satisfying basic psychological needs, such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness to others [36]. Self-determination refers to an individual’s ability to act in accordance with their own choices, values, and internal goals, rather than being directed by external influences or social pressures. Secure attachment experiences can influence how individuals compare themselves to others and how they perceive themselves in terms of competence and personal worth, thereby affecting their self-esteem and self-concept [37]. On one hand, secure attachment provides a foundation for individuals to develop a sense of autonomy and competence in their relationships with others, which can have a positive impact on self-esteem [38], as children learn to perceive themselves as competent and capable [39]. On the other hand, secure attachment provides a foundation for individuals to develop adaptive coping and emotional regulation strategies, contributing to a more positive self-esteem and a more coherent and stable self-perception [40]. Erikson’s theory of identity highlights that the formation of self-concept and personal identity are critical tasks in adolescence. Secure attachment facilitates the development of a positive and coherent identity in adolescents, influencing their self-esteem and self-perception [41]. In line with this, previous studies have shown that individuals with secure attachment tend to have higher levels of self-esteem. Wu examined the mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between attachment tendencies and self-concept clarity, using a path model, and found that individuals with secure attachment have higher self-esteem, leading to greater self-concept clarity [42]. Similarly, the positive relationship between security scores and self-concept has been demonstrated [43], as well as the connection between attachment-based parenting models and identity-related psychological characteristics and social relationships of individuals, indicating that attachment security is associated with self-esteem and self-concept as individuals grow [8]. Similarly, a more positive self-concept can influence the strengthening of secure attachment, as formulated by Steele in his theory of self-affirmation, where he suggests that individuals have an intrinsic motivation to maintain a positive self-image and preserve coherence between their beliefs and behaviors [44]. A more positive self-concept can influence the perception of relationships with others and affect expectations of support and affection in social interactions, which can lead to a higher likelihood of establishing secure attachment relationships [38]. Secure attachment and self-esteem are interconnected through multiple theories and psychological processes. Experiences of secure attachment in childhood and adolescence provide a solid emotional foundation for individuals to develop positive self-esteem, which in turn influences the formation and consolidation of self-concept throughout life.

2.4. Secure Attachment, Resilience, Positive Self-Esteem, and Self-Concept

Secure attachment provides a solid emotional foundation for the development of resilience and positive self-esteem [3], which, in turn, can influence individuals’ self-perception and the construction of their self-concept throughout life. It is known that higher resilience can strengthen self-esteem and, in turn, enhance self-concept [45]. Furthermore, resilience, as the capacity to face and overcome adversities, may promote greater confidence in one’s abilities and resources, which is associated with a more positive self-esteem [13]. Conversely, positive self-esteem can influence individuals’ self-perception and how they interpret social experiences, thereby impacting the formation and consolidation of self-concept [46]. Similarly, studies have examined how self-esteem can mediate the relationship between secure attachment and self-concept in young adults [47]. Secure attachment in childhood may promote higher self-esteem in adulthood, which in turn influences how individuals see themselves and how they perceive their relationships with others and the world around them.