Phytochemicals: Comparison
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 The bioactive chemical compounds responsible for these benefits are known as phytochemicals (PHYs). Specifically, PHYs are defined as bioactive chemical compounds found in plants, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and other plant-derived foods, that may supply health benefits beyond basic nutrition and could help to reduce the risk of major chronic diseases. PHYs are generally produced by plants to help themselves resist fungi, bacteria, and plant virus infections and also to hamper their consumption by insects and other animals

  • nanoemulsion techniques
  • bioactive constituents of plant
  • phytochemicals (PHYs)

1. Phytochemicals and Nutraceuticals: Not Quite the Same

Both PHYs, also known as phytonutrients, and nutraceuticals are bioactive compounds that can be found in edible products possessing beneficial properties capable of enhancing human health and are commonly ingested with the diet. Anyway, while nutraceuticals are essential nutrients for human life and are necessarily present in edible products derived from animals, plants, or fungi, PHYs are non-nutrients and exclusively originate from plants [17][1]. Although a lower intake of PHYs does not cause defects, these compounds can be invaluable to human health, and a diet rich in PHYs is strongly connected to better health [18][2]. In vitro studies have demonstrated that PHYs are multifunctional compounds with health-promoting properties like those of conventional drugs and can be considered “pharmaceutical-grade compounds”. They can improve the ability to detox, boost the immune system, and help to protect against age-related diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis [18][2].

2. Phytochemicals: An Overview

It has been reported that scientists have already identified over 5000 different classes of PHYs. Anyway, many more remain undiscovered, and much more has to be learned about their potential benefits [19][3]. Although PHYs can derive from both edible and non-edible plants [20][4], all plant-based foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and herbs, contain them. Generally, PHYs confer to the plant-derived food containing them a particular bright color, but foods without these characteristics can contain these healthy promoters, as well (Table 1). Green, purple, red, blue, or yellow vegetables and fruits contain colored PHYs [19[3][5][6],21,22], but non-brightly colored potatoes, cauliflower, nuts such as almonds, cashews, and hazelnuts, tea, and dark chocolate also contain several PHYs (Table 1) [19,23,24,25][3][7][8][9]. Moreover, essential oils (EOs), including those from pine needles, cedar, and lavender, are used as health promoters due to their PHY contents (Table 1) [26,27,28][10][11][12].
Table 1.
Sources of PHYs and their main benefits.
Edible Plants Essential Oils Benefits
PHYs Sources Health Benefits
Brightly Colored Not Brightly Colored
Berries
Carotenoids [41,42][26][27]Potatoes

Almonds

Pecans

Pistachios

Cauliflower

Walnuts

Cashews

Hazelnuts

Tea

Dark chocolate

Cacao beans

Barley

Beans

Lentils

Rice

Coffee

Mung beans

Soybeans

Cloves

Cinnamon

Cumin

Nutmeg		 Carrots, tomatoes, parsley

Orange and green leafy vegetables

Chenopods, fenugreek

Spinach, cabbage, radish, turnips		Pine needles

Cedar

Lavender		 Act as antioxidants

Protect against uterine, prostate, colorectal, lung

digestive tract cancers		Boost the immune system [29][13]

Combat OS and FR [30][14]

⇓ Blood sugar levels [30,31][14][15]

⇓ Blood pressure [29][13]

⇓ Diabetes risk [30,32][14][16]

⇓ Serious health issues [30,32][14][16]

Prevent chronic disease [29,30][13][14]

Protect from pathogens [33,34,35][17][18][19]

Protect brain and liver [29][13]

⇓ Cholesterol [29][13]

⇓ Inflammation [30,[36,1437]][20][21]

Support detoxification [30,38][14][22]

Ward off osteoporosis [29][13]
Cranberries
Phytosterols [42,43][27 Blackberries
] Strawberries
[ Cherries
28] Vegetables, nuts, fruits, seeds Suppress the growth of diverse tumor cell lines
[1,3,10,11,17,18,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65][1][2][24][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53] were reported.
Figure 31.
Structures and pharmacological properties of some plant-derived polyphenols. ROS = reactive oxygen species.
Figure 42.
Chemical structures of some relevant PHYs.

2.2. Let Us Eat in Color

Since PHYs confer particular food colors, colored foods surely contain PHYs and possess the same benefits as PHYs having the same color. So, by eating foods from all of the different color groups, a wide range of different PHYs can be assumed, with a consequent broad spectrum of benefits [66][54]. Table 3 below reports the general subdivision of plant-related foods into the different color groups.
Table 3.
General classification of the different color groups *.
Color Group Foods PHYs Properties Refs.
Green Asparagus, avocados, celery, cucumbers

Green beans, green peppers, kale, kiwi

Spinach, zucchini		 EGCG, glucosinolates

Indoles, isoflavones

Isothiocyanates, lutein, and zeaxanthin

Sulforaphane		 Promote wound healing and healthy gums

Support arteries, blood cells, eyes, liver, and lungs		 [18,66][2][54]
Purple Black beans, blackberries

Eggplants, elderberries, plums

Purple cabbage, purple grapes, raisins		 Anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenols

Tannins, RES		 Protect against serious health issues

Support arteries, bones, brain, cognition, healthy aging, and heart		 [18,66][2][54]
Limonoids [42][27] Citrus fruits
Red Cherries, cranberries, kidney beans

Red beans, strawberries, tomatoes		Inhibit phase I enzymes and induce phase II detoxification enzymes in liver

Provide protection to lung tissue, detoxify enzymes


Watermelon Anthocyanins, ellagic acid, eugenol

Hesperidin

Lycopene, tannins, quercetin		 Protect against heart disease and other serious health issues

Support prostate, urinary tract, and DNA health		 [18,66][2][54] Curcuminoids [42][27] Turmeric, curry powder, mango, ginger
Yellow Apricots, cantaloupe, carrots, grapefruit

Yellow pears, yellow peppers

Yellow winter squash		Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidative

Anti-depressive

Protective against hay fever and depression, ⇓ cholesterol and itching risk
α-Carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, Lutein, zeaxanthin, hesperidin Boost the immune system, support heart and vision health [18,66][2][54] Indole compounds [42][27]

(indole-3-carbinol)		 Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kale

Brussels sprouts		 Strong antioxidant, DNA protector, chemo-preventive, anticancer

⇑ Heart health
White Apples, cauliflower

Great northern beans

Mushrooms, onions		 Allicin, ECGC, glucosinolates, indoles Tannins, quercetin Protect against heart disease and

other serious health issues

Support arteries, bones, and circulation		 [18][ Currants
2] Alkaloids [44][29] Plants (also animals and bacteria) Grapes
Antimalarial, antiasthma, anticancer, cholinomimetics

Vasodilatory, antiarrhythmic

Analgesic, antibacterial, antihyperglycemic, psychotropic, stimulant		 Plums
][27] Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes

Chocolates, oilseeds		 Action against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic

Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protective against hepatotoxins		 Purple potatoes
Flavonoids * [42][27] Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes

Chocolates, oilseeds		 Action against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic Red Cabbage
Phytoprostanes [45][

Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protective against hepatotoxins
Iso-flavonoids ** [42Cabbage
30][27] Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes

Chocolates, oilseeds		 Action against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic

Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protective against hepatotoxins
Anthocyanidins ** [42,46,47,48][27][31][32][33]

Anthocyanins ** [42,46,47,48][27]		 Kohlrabi
] Broccoli sprouts


Phytofurans [45][[31][32][33]		 Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes

Chocolates, oilseeds		 Act against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic Apples
30 Bananas
] Peaches


Inhibit platelet aggregation, protect against hepatotoxins

Help control weight, prevent heart disease

Increase insulin sensitivity

Reduce inflammation, decrease diabetic complications, protect DNA

Protect the brain

Boost other PHYs and phytonutrients
Glucosinolates [42][27] Cruciferous vegetables Antiparasitic herbs
Almonds, vegetal oils, olives, algaeProtection against cancer of colon, rectum, stomach
Phytoestrogens [42][27] Legumes, berries, whole grains, cereals

Red wine, peanuts, red grapes		 Protection against bone loss, heart disease, cardiovascular diseases

Protection against breast and uterine cancers
Terpenoids [42][27]

Isoprenoids [42][27]		 Mosses, liverworts, algae, lichens, mushrooms Egg yolks


Orange peppers
Passion fruit, nut kernels, riceAntimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiviral, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory Chemotherapeutic, antihyperglycemic, antispasmodic
Fibers [49][34] Fruits and vegetables (green leafy), oats ⇓ Blood cholesterol, ⇓ cardiovascular disease
Polysaccharides [42][27] Fruits and vegetables Antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiviral, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory

⇓ Serum, ⇑ defense mechanisms
Saponins [42][27] Oats, leaves, flowers, green fruits of tomato Protection against pathogens, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory

Antiulcer agent
Tannins [42][27] Cranberries, currants, blackberries, apples, grapes, peaches

Strawberries, almonds

Hazelnuts, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, barley beans, lentils, rice Tea, cacao beans

Dark chocolate, antiparasitic herbs		 Act as antioxidants, fight pathogens, ⇓ blood pressure, ⇓ inflammation

⇓ Serious health risks

Regulate the immune system		 Oranges
Lutein [ Pumpkins
Yellow corn
Kale
Parsley
Romain lettuce
Spinach
Olive oil
Melons
OS = oxidative stress; FR = free radicals; ⇓ reduces, lowers.

2.1. Specific Sources and Benefits of the Main Types of PHYs

The most common PHYs are polyphenols, carotenoids, coumarins, indoles, organosulfur compounds, isothiocyanates, saponins, tannins, phenylpropanoids, anthraquinones, ginsenosides, terpenoids, etc. [39][23]. In Table 2 below, the most relevant PHYs, their sources, and the associated health-promoting effects were reported [3,40][24][25].
Table 2.
Most relevant types of PHYs, their sources, and the associated beneficial health effects.
Immunomodulators, anti-inflammatory, antitumor
Polyphenols
[
42
42
]
[
27
]


Zeaxanthin
[
42
]
[
27
] Egg yolks, orange peppers, oranges, pumpkins, yellow corn, kale Parsley, romaine lettuce, spinach, pistachios, olive oil Protect retina from damage, ⇑ eye function

⇑ Memory and brain function

Promote the body’s use of insulin, ⇑ skin health, ⇓ blood pressure

⇓ Inflammation

Support heart health
Eugenol [50][35] Cloves, cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, coffee

Mung beans, soybeans, bananas, melons

Strawberries, tomatoes		 Acts as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, eliminates parasites, fights fungi

Inhibits serious health concerns, protects the brain and the liver,

⇓ Bacterial biofilm

Supports heart and stomach health
⇑ Improved, higher; ⇓ reduced, lower; * a subgroup of polyphenols; ** a subgroup of flavonoids.
As mentioned above, the known PHYs are in the thousands. In Figure 31 and Figure 42, the chemical structures of the most common polyphenols (Figure 31) and of other relevant PHYs (Figure 42) with their properties
* The present table was constructed by the authors using information found in the literature [18][2]; the row color reproduces the color of PHYs contained in the reported foods, which are responsible for the food’s coloration and appearance.

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