Over centuries, environmental issues have crippled the planet due to global warming, climate crisis, and the depletion of resources. As per the United Nations, climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. The increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily caused by human activities and excessive utilization of natural resources, has driven this transformation, particularly since the 1800s [1]. According to [2], carbon emissions have been causing a definite and continued increase in global temperatures. The evidence is that the world has already seen four major disasters in Turkey, Syria, Sao Paulo, New Zealand, and the United States in 2023. According to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), the world encountered 187 cases of natural disasters in 79 countries in 2022, mainly related to climate issues. The number of people affected by natural disasters was 50 million, in terms of economic losses, total damage exceeding 40 billion dollars has been estimated while the most affected countries were Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Philippines [3]. Such events highlight the aftermath of human behavior on the planet and if the world continues to be ignorant, then the future generation will face more challenges.

The built environment is a broad sector covering physical buildings and infrastructure-related industries such as the construction sector. It is basically a surrounding created by humans offering several settings to make human life comfortable, however, how they are built has an influence on both humans and the environment [4]. Apart from being a necessity, humans also expect to have their built environment to be aesthetically pleasing as well as convenient, which means there is a need for a well-developed infrastructure and good roads, leading to higher carbon emissions if not developed in a sustainable manner. For example, buildings are responsible for at least 40% of energy use in most countries due to the natural resources utilized during the construction of the infrastructure, schools, homes, and office buildings. The built environment in total contributes to around 40% of GHG emissions and this has been a major concern ^[5][6][5,6]. Therefore, carbon mitigation or decarbonization has become an urgent issue that needs to be solved and is permeating into all fields, for example, politics, economy, lifestyle, ecology, and others [7].

The Paris Climate Agreement signed in 2015 has urged governments to implement urgent strategies that will reduce the amount of carbon being released into the atmosphere to avoid the devastating consequences of global warming. It has been outlined by multiple parties, including scientists, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and other global governing bodies, that in order to combat the severe consequences of climate change, society must maintain a 1.5-degree warming limit similar to pre-industrial levels. This means that the world must mitigate these changes by taking strict action, now. For these actions to be successful and impactful, GHG emissions will need to be cut in half by 2030 and carbon dioxide emissions will need to reach net zero by around 2050, which is an enormous but achievable challenge [8].

2. The Climate Agreement

Climate change is one of the biggest ecological and social challenges humankind is facing during the twenty-first century. Anthropogenic activity such as industrial practices and urbanization have significantly contributed to climate change through greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The consequences include extreme weather, forest fires, melting polar ice caps, and increased seismic and volcanic activity [1]. The urgency of addressing global warming is evident, emphasizing the international responsibility to take action. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), established in 1994, aims to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and prevent “dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” ^[9][10][9,10]. Notably, the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, set binding emission reduction targets for developed countries. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, established a more inclusive framework, with commitments from both developed and developing nations to limit global warming to well below 2 °C and 1.5 °C [11]. The Conference of the Parties (COP), held annually (except in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), brings together countries to assess progress and advance climate action and push toward decarbonization. COP26, held in 2021, prioritized the role of the built environment in decarbonization, focusing on areas such as clean energy, sustainable transportation, and resilient infrastructure. COP27, held in 2022, continued efforts to strengthen climate commitments and emphasized international collaboration, technology, and financing for effective climate solutions. These recent COP meetings emphasize the recognition that the built environment plays a significant role in implementing decarbonization strategies to achieve the targets set by the Paris Agreement.

3. COP26 to COP27

COP26 was originally scheduled for 2020 in Glasgow but was moved to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and was a highly significant conference. It featured the release of a report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which signaled the rapidly impending dangers of global warming [12]. The report revealed that projected temperature increases are more severe than previously believed, exceeding the 1.5 °C safety threshold. It demonstrated how the current global warming trends contribute to rainfall pattern shifts, glacier melting, and extreme weather events. While carbon emissions briefly reduced during the pandemic due to lockdown measures, they rebounded sharply by the third quarter of 2021 [13]. The main objective of COP26 was to solidify countries’ commitments to significant GHG emissions reductions by 2030. The conference also focused on discussing adaptation measures to address the changing climate and increasing funding for climate-related actions, with a particular emphasis on supporting less developed nations. The outcome of the COP26 gathering was disappointing, as significant advancements were lacking. The failure of wealthy nations, who bear the primary responsibility for the high emissions, to take decisive climate action posed a major obstacle. This setback made it even more challenging to achieve the target of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C by 2030. Additionally, funding provisions for less developed countries affected by climate impacts received insufficient attention ^[14][15][14,15]. Experts believed that COP26 was significant for the built environment due to dedicated discussions on its role in achieving net-zero targets [16]. Important announcements during COP26 emphasized the crucial role of the built environment in reducing carbon emissions by 2030 and limiting global warming to 1.5 °C. According to the World Green Building Council, 26 climate action initiatives in cities, regions and built environments urged governments to take concrete actions and design pathways for change through appropriate regulatory frameworks and access to finance. Cross-sectoral collaborations were considered accelerators for transforming towards net-zero targets and creating a resilient built environment. Remarkable elements included $1.2 trillion in real estate assets under management participating in the Race to Zero. Similarly, 1049 cities representing 722 million people joined Race to Zero, indicating the potential for collective action to reduce 1.4 gigatons of global emissions by 2030 [17]. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change COP27 built upon the outcomes of COP26 to take action on critical issues in addressing the climate emergency. Held in Sherm-El-Sheikh, Egypt, between 7 and 18 November 2022, emphasizing the need for industrialized nations to lead by example and take bold and immediate actions. Key discussions revolved around nature, food, water, decarbonization, and climate adaptation [18]. Member countries were urged to urgently reduce GHG emissions, build resilience, and adapt to the inevitable impacts of climate change while fulfilling their commitments to finance climate action in developing countries. It was reiterated that eliminating carbon emissions from various sectors, including electricity generation, transportation, industry, and agriculture, by 2050 is crucial to avoid disastrous climate impacts. Numerous initiatives and commitments were announced during COP27, including the development of decarbonization and resilience roadmaps at national and sub-national levels to address energy performance and lifecycle emissions for new and existing buildings. A significant discussion focused on integrating whole-life carbon considerations into decarbonization strategies and decision-making processes. The Race to Zero commitment, introduced at COP26, saw a substantial increase in the number of construction companies committed to halving emissions by 2030, across all scopes [19]. This highlighted the importance of the built environment sector in actively reducing emissions through proactive measures. Although operational emissions from the built environment showed a 5% increase compared to 2020 levels, showcasing a concerning trend deviating from the Paris Agreement objectives, actions and initiatives announced at COP27 indicate the sector’s readiness and capability to scale up with climate-based solutions [19]. Table 1 below highlights some of the recommendations provided regarding the built environment during COP26 and COP27.

Main Areas	Recommendations—COP26	Recommendations—COP27
Net-Zero Buildings	Governments and stakeholders were urged to commit to achieving net-zero carbon emissions in the construction and operation of buildings. This involved adopting energy-efficient building designs, integrating renewable energy sources, and implementing sustainable construction practices using both active and passive designs.	The event highlighted the importance of moving towards a net-zero, resilient, and circular built environment to achieve climate targets and protect the communities vulnerable to the effects of climate change. To achieve this, multi-level action and public–private partnerships in cities to unlock the urgent challenge of transformation and adaptation that are needed at pace and at scale were initiated.
	The adoption and implementation of green building standards and codes were recommended to ensure that new buildings meet high energy efficiency and sustainability criteria. This includes promoting energy-efficient materials, efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, and sustainable water management practices.	Under the Breakthrough Agenda first launched at COP26, countries representing more than 70% of global GDP, with the support of multi-stakeholder partners, produced a package of 25 new collaborative actions to be delivered by COP28 to speed up decarbonization under five key breakthroughs: power, road transport, steel, hydrogen, and agriculture, with the building and cement sectors to be added to the Breakthrough Agenda next year.
	Governments and urban planners were advised to prioritize compact and sustainable urban development, promoting mixed land-use patterns, access to green spaces, and efficient public transportation systems. This helps reduce energy consumption, enhance resilience to climate impacts, and create livable and sustainable cities.	The event highlighted the importance of robust risk assessments and evidence-based climate risk assessments for integrating resilience-building actions into urban planning. It emphasized the need for clear resilience priorities, collaboration with non-Party stakeholders, and the incorporation of nature-based solutions. Success stories on climate-proofing existing plans and private sector engagement were shared, along with the need for innovative funding mechanisms to support adaptation and resilience-building activities.
Renewable Energy	Promoting the use of sustainable and low-carbon materials in construction, considering their lifecycle environmental impacts. Integrating green infrastructure elements, such as green roofs, vertical gardens, and rain water harvesting systems, into building designs to enhance biodiversity, improve air quality, and manage stromwater.	Launched by LeadIt and the Global Cement and Concrete Association (GGCA), the Green Cement Technology Tracker was published in order to ensure more transparency and accountability. The aim is to transparently track public announcements of low-carbon investments in the cement industry.
	Encouraging the construction of net-zero energy buildings that produce as much renewable energy as they consume, thereby reducing carbon emissions. Further, the members were encouraged to promote energy-efficient building designs and technologies to minimize energy consumption and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.	The Planning for Climate Commission was launched, a new global initiative focused on speeding up planning and approvals for the massive deployment of renewables and green hydrogen needed to address climate change and energy security. Organizations representing wind, solar, hydropower, green hydrogen, long-duration energy storage, and geothermal energy industries joined forces in an unprecedented alliance to launch the Global Renewables Alliance. It brings together, for the first time, all the technologies required for the energy transition in order to ensure an accelerated energy transition.
Circular Economy Principles	The adoption of circular economy principles in the built environment was emphasized, which involves reducing waste, reusing materials, and promoting recycling and sustainable construction practices.	There was a focus on addressing the circular economy for waste issues inclusively as well as on scaling up finance. Landfills and waste burning are not sustainable practices. Instead, there is a growing demand for a new green economy that is net-positive, focusing on rethinking decisions at all levels to transform waste into income and contribute to climate action, health, and the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

4. The Built Environment and Climate Change

The built environment refers to the human-created surroundings that provide the backdrop for human activity. It encompasses buildings and parks or green spaces and communities and cities, often accompanied by supporting infrastructure, such as water supply, energy networks and leisure activities ^[20][21]. The built environment has an influence on both human and environmental health, and therefore, it is crucial to develop a built environment that is safe and provides longevity to both. However, the buildings and the infrastructure humans are surrounded with consume limitless levels of natural resources during all the phases which negatively impacts the environment. The major contributors to these emissions are the materials used during the construction of the infrastructure as well as the heating, cooling, and lighting of buildings. Therefore, over the years the world has been facing increased temperatures, adverse climatic conditions, and various other adversities ^[20][21]. Ongoing anthropogenic climate change is mainly triggered by the increased levels of greenhouse gases (GHG), especially carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the environment. According to ^[21][22], the responsibility is shared by multi-stakeholders such as developers, architects and engineers, material suppliers, building managers, and operation and maintenance personnel in the case of the built environment sector. Therefore, there was a major discussion during COP26 and 27 that the stakeholders should take responsibility for reducing their carbon emissions during the construction and the operational phase as well as looking at waste management strategies throughout and at the end of the life of the building [8]. The world requires cost-effective building solutions that support the drive for decarbonization throughout the construction industry’s entire value chain. According to a report by Deloitte, actions should be taken to lower the carbon intensity of building materials by implementing climate-smart, low, and clean energy consumption during the construction phase. Similar solutions should also be implemented to reduce the operational carbon of real estate and infrastructure development as well as the circularity of the building ^[22][23]. Key decisions regarding low-carbon building materials will remain significantly important. However, building design is another crucial element for reducing operational carbon. Bioclimatic building design is an excellent example of building architecture that is often used in the design of new buildings. Several bioclimatic (passive) design measures, such as building shape, orientation, and window distribution, can effectively reduce a building’s energy use at little or no additional cost ^[23][24][24,25]. Researchers have compared traditional and modern designs and concluded that traditional passive designs hold superiority in improving thermal conditions both indoors and outdoors. Passive design can enhance internal thermal conditions by reducing indoor temperatures with minimal maintenance, and it can be implemented using locally accessible resources. These solutions contribute to climate-responsive strategies for regulating indoor thermal conditions while reducing energy consumption and GHG emissions ^[25][26][26,27]. Buildings consume a significant amount of energy, and energy consumption in buildings has been rising in recent decades. Therefore, energy-conserving measures (ECM) are needed for achieving green building development and urban sustainability ^[27][28]. Several research studies have identified building insulation, equipment systems, conserving behavior, control and management systems, and renewable energy sources as effective in enhancing the active design parameters of buildings based on local climate features ^[28][29]. Considering that climate characteristics and the need for climate-responsive buildings differ across regions, it is reasonable to assert that energy-efficient design strategies should take into account the specific meteorological and climatic conditions of each region ^[29][30]. The built environment plays a vital role in combating climate change and adapting to its effects, as it encompasses various climate-related factors such as energy, water, materials, human welfare, biodiversity, and transportation. Water scarcity is a pressing issue due to rising populations, adverse climatic conditions, and extensive industrialization, which put immense pressure on safe and sufficient water resources. Traditional sources of water, both liquid and solid, have been depleted, leading researchers to explore alternative methods of water generation using the gaseous state ^[30][31]. Constructing and maintaining alternative solutions such as active dew collection (electrically powered condensers), water transfer infrastructure (such as dams, reservoirs and pipelines), and seawater desalination plants can be costly due to their high operational expenses. Atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) is gaining popularity as a passive water production solution that utilizes millions of droplets and vapor in the atmosphere. This alternative could prove vital in addressing water-related challenges in landlocked countries facing dry and arid climates ^[31][32][32,33]. AWH technology has received favorable responses from different stakeholders since it does not require additional energy, unlike other alternatives. These technologies are cost-effective, easy to install and maintain, energy efficient, and have high harvesting performances compared to conventional methods ^[33][34]. A collaborative approach to waste disposal is crucial to building sustainable cities that can meet the needs of future generations. Waste management, particularly organic waste, is a critical challenge faced to date. According to The World Bank 2022 report, 53% and 57% of food and green waste, respectively, are generated by middle- and low-income countries. These percentages are expected to increase with the rising population and poor waste management solutions. Landfilling is the most common waste management solution, but the world is running out of space, leading some countries to export waste to others ^[34][35]. One notable solution is applying anaerobic digestion (AD) to convert large amounts of food waste into biogas, which yields significant energy (367 m³ of biogas per dry tonne at about 65% methane with an energy content of 6.25 kWh/m³ of biogas yielding 894 TWh), annually representing almost 5% of the total global electrical energy utilization. AD reduces the need for landfill space, saves transportation costs, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Although biogas plants have been utilized since the 19th century, their widespread adoption in urban environments is hindered by cost and maintenance issues.

5. UAE’s Climate Adaptation in the Built Environment Sector

The UAE is an emerging economy that has experienced impressive growth over the past decades; however, due to this rapid growth, development needs took priority over environmental considerations. The main reason for the rapid growth was that the UAE was initially focused on oil-based trade revenue; however, regulations have been put in place that address sustainability and energy consumption in different sectors, including buildings ^[35][36][36,37]. UAE has been an active advocate of climate action since 1989 when the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone layer was organized alongside the creation of the Montreal Protocol and further joined as a member of the UNFCCC in 1995. Climate change is a serious issue for UAE since it is based in an arid climate, and it is expected that it will face a harsher climate in the future. Therefore, to mitigate the issues, the UAE listed climate change as one of the main priorities to maintain the country’s sustainability and growth ^[37][38]. The first initiative was to appoint a ministry dedicated to focusing on climate-related issues and, therefore, the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment was formed. The UAE government formed the UAE Council for Climate Change and Environment to develop partnerships with the private sector to conduct climate-specific research and support policy and framework development. Through its Energy Strategy 2050, the UAE affirmed its plan to generate around 50% of its electricity from clean energy sources such as solar energy by 2050 and reduce its carbon footprint by 70% by 2050 ^[38][39]. UAE has been quite ambitious in spearheading several initiatives to alleviate the impacts of climate change ^[39][40]. One of the major implementations of the UAE-built environment is the Estidama Pearl Rating System (PRS), which was established in 2009. Estidama in Arabic means sustainability. This rating system is an initiative by the Abu Dhabi government (an Emirate in the UAE) to create sustainability frameworks where new developments receive a certain number of pearls if specific sustainability measures are followed. Another very important initiative was the reformation of the Dubai Green Building Regulations and Specifications as Al Sa’fat initiative in 2020, which provides a comprehensive set of requirements for all new developments to secure a more sustainable built environment ^[40][41]. There have been several other landmark initiatives undertaken in different parts of the UAE, such as Masdar City in Abu Dhabi built in 2006, and several sustainable initiatives have been implemented. The Sustainable City in Dubai, Sharjah, and in the future in Abu Dhabi, focuses on three pillars of sustainability i.e., social, economic, and environmental. EXPO2020 was yet another remarkable undertaking for the world stage, as it was built with sustainability parameters at the forefront and is currently operating in an energy-efficient environment ^[41][42]. According to Asif (2016) ^[42][43], among all the GCC countries, the UAE has been at the forefront of having the biggest share of green buildings in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Recently, the UAE submitted a new NDC to the UNFCCC that highlights the inclusion of an economy-wide emission reduction target and therefore intends to reduce its GHG emissions from 23.5% to 31% by 2030 which is consistent with the approach adopted under article 4.7 of the Paris agreement ^[43][44]. The UAE National Climate Change Plan 2017–2050 and UAE Energy Strategy 2050 both recognize the critical role of the built environment in achieving sustainability and preventing climate change; below are some of the plans discussed in both strategies:

• Energy-efficient buildings—the plans emphasize the importance of promoting energy-efficient buildings through improved design, construction techniques, and the use of advanced technologies. The goal is to reduce energy consumption in buildings and minimize GHG emissions.
• Green building standards: The plans encourage the adoption of green building standards and certifications, such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and Estidama’s Pearl Rating System. The standards promote sustainable building practices, including energy and water efficiency, use of renewable energy, and sustainable materials.
• Renewable energy integration: The plans promote the integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, into the built environment. This includes installing solar panels on buildings, implementing net-zero energy building designs, and encouraging the use of renewable energy in construction projects.
• Research and development: The plans emphasize the need for research and development in the built environment sector to foster innovation and develop sustainable building technologies and materials. This includes supporting research institutions, collaborating with industry stakeholders, and promoting knowledge exchange.

The 28th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP28) will be held in November 2023 at the EXPO City in Dubai, which reflects the UAE government’s efforts to transform the economy from oil-based to clean and renewable energy sources along with technological advancements and climate-smart solutions. Overall, the UAE has been persistent in encompassing all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the recommendations provided during COP26 and COP27 gatherings, across all initiatives and sectors to progressively adopt economic diversification, which is a resilient co-benefit for climate mitigation and adaptation.