High-Quality Gastronomy for Tourism Offer: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Jessie Wu and Version 1 by Nuša Basle.

Food has evolved from a basic necessity to a primary motivation for travel. While providing a high-quality gastronomic offer is still a restaurant’s primary function, quality is no longer enough; today’s demanding guests seek unique and memorable dining experiences. A restaurant’s competences play a significant role in shaping the guests’ overall perception of the quality and derived perceived value, both of which ultimately impact the competitiveness of both the restaurant and the gastronomic destination. 

  • gastronomic tourism
  • upscale gastronomy
  • quality
  • gastronomic destination competences
  • gastronomic destination competitiveness

1. Introduction

Gastronomy has become an increasingly important resource for destination development, creating the need for gastronomy studies and generating the term gastronomic tourism. Thus, to be recognized as a gastronomic destination, gastronomy should be implemented into the destination’s strategy at all levels, including during analysis, planning, and execution (community policy) [1,2][1][2]. The evolution of gastronomy and gastronomic tourism from 2002 onwards, which has spurred the need for scientific research, is explained below.
The importance of gastronomy, as well as the term gastronomic tourism, was first discussed and introduced in 2002 when it was recognized that people specifically travel for gastronomy, seeking a quality experience beyond the basic physiological need to eat [3]; Slovenia, for example, developed its gastronomic tourism strategy in 2006 [4].
In 2012, the UNWTO acknowledged gastronomic tourism as one of the most dynamic and creative segments of tourism, which is underpinned by sustainability, high quality, and creativity. Gastronomy’s importance in the development of tourism destinations of the world is widely recognized [5,6,7][5][6][7].
In the Second Global Report on Gastronomy Tourism in 2017, the UNWTO Secretary-General Taleb Rifai stressed that people want to experience food in the same way that they want to experience art, music, and architecture; it is explained that gastronomic tourism offers enormous potential in stimulating local economies and enhancing sustainability and inclusion, therefore positively contributing to many levels of the tourism value chain [8].
Since 2016, the International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts and Tourism has been awarding the European Regions of Gastronomy Award. The program aims to (1) raise awareness about the importance of cultural and food uniqueness, (2) stimulate creativity and gastronomic innovation, (3) promote better nutrition, (4) improve sustainable tourism standards, (5) highlight distinct food cultures, and (6) create long-term benefits, such as attracting visitors to a destination, supporting European small- and medium-sized enterprises, and strengthening community well-being [9].
Moreover, the European Union has launched the Creative Europe program 2021–2027, which has a strong emphasis on innovation mobility schemes for artists and professionals and actions targeting the needs of specific creative sectors such as music, architecture, cultural heritage, gastronomy (as an art form that is a part of cultural tourism) with the creativity of chefs and restaurants [10,11][10][11].
The rise of gastronomic tourism has created new tourism destinations, the so-called foodscapes or foodiescapes, such as places featuring Michelin star restaurants [12]. Travelers may be motivated by status and prestige when choosing a destination due to its haute cuisine being awarded Michelin stars and Gault Millau toques or being mentioned on the San Pellegrino list, the “World’s 50 Best Restaurants” list [13].
Okumus [14] outlined future perspectives of gastronomic tourism over the next 75 years (2020–2095), where (1) tourists will be willing to spend more time and money on unique food and beverage experiences and (2) emphasis will be placed on designing a tourism experience based on authenticity, high creativity, sustainability challenges, technologies, and social media; meanwhile, Schwark et al. [15] expect that (3) haute cuisine tourism will grow, where most upscale restaurants will open in Asia and America, and (4) water sommeliers with sophisticated nonalcoholic pairings, 3D printed food, and entomophagy (eating insects) will remain a major trend.
Sustainability is a concept that is increasingly important in gastronomy and gastronomic tourism. When sustainable, tourism is “economically viable but does not destroy the resources on which the future of tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social fabric of the host community” [16]. Sustainable tourism therefore strengthens the quality of the destinations and their image. Environmentally conscious tourists are willing to pay higher prices for responsible and sustainable destination products [17]. Therefore, sustainable (destination) products are treated as upscale, which makes them especially important for upscale gastronomy and the gastronomic destination image. Many destinations see gastronomic tourism as a way to generate more sustainable tourism benefits for local businesses, local producers, and regions [18].

2. Gastronomy as An Important Feature of Tourism

Food is an essential component of travel; as it is a basic daily need, it constitutes a significant portion of travel expenses [26][19]. According to Wolf and the World Food Travel Association [27][20], travelers spend approximately 25% of their travel budget on food and beverage (F&B). This percentage can reach up to 35% in expensive destinations and drop to around 15% in more affordable ones. Because gastronomic tourists (i.e., tourists whose main reason for travel is to indulge in culinary experiences) do not merely eat to satisfy their hunger but also wish to explore the local gastronomy, they generally spend more than the average 25% that is spent by travelers [27,28,29][20][21][22]. Gastronomy has become an important feature of tourism. It is a creative part of cultural tourism, enabling tourists to discover a destination through its food, wine, and culture [30][23]. Experiencing gastronomy while on vacation has been compared with the “consumption of local heritage” [3]. One’s memories of a place can be strongly associated with the gastronomic experiences that they had there and the people that they shared them with. Destinations can be perceived not only visually but also in terms of soundscape, smellscape, and tastescape [31][24]. Certain foods become synonymous with specific locations, for example, hot dogs with New York, kebab with Istanbul, gyros with Greece, sauerkraut with Germany, and paella and tapas with Spain [32][25]. In Mediterranean destinations such as Italy and France, gastronomy holds a central role as a principal, core resource. This is the cradle of haute cuisine featuring upscale gastronomic establishments, luxury and gourmet restaurants, and fine dining. However, in most destinations, gastronomy is still considered a supporting resource as the destination’s image is associated with other resources such as culture or recreation; therefore, gastronomy can play a pivotal role in positioning and developing undifferentiated primary resources [5,33][5][26]. Gastronomic tourism is still a rather new topic within the tourism industry, and it has gained increased attention since the turn of the millennium; it establishes connections between tourists and the destination’s culture [34][27]. Bornhorst et al. [35][28] argue that a destination’s success hinges on a unique location, accessibility, attractive products and services, quality visitor experiences, and community support. Destinations thus face the challenge of shaping an appealing multidimensional offer, and it can be said that the success of a tourism business is the outcome of a destination’s competitive tourism offer [36][29]. (Service) quality can play a vital role in enhancing the competitiveness of a tourism destination as it serves as a source of competitive advantage. Martin [37][30] defines service quality as “the ability to consistently meet external and internal customer needs, wants, and expectations involving procedural and personal encounters”. Many scholars have employed modified versions of the original SERVQUAL model proposed by Parasuraman et al. [22][31] to measure service quality across various types of services (e.g., DINESERV: Stevens [23][32], DINESCAPE: Ryu and Jang [38][33], etc. [21,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]) (Table 1).
Table 1.
Models for measuring various types of quality.
Modified

SERVQUAL Models		 Description
TANGSERV

(Raajpoot, 2002) [51][47]		 Measuring tangible quality in the food service sector (e.g., music, temperature, design, location, seating arrangement, food presentation, food variety)
DINESCAPE

(Ryu and Jang, 2008) [38][33]		 Measuring customers’ perception of dining environments, focusing on restaurant environments that are restricted to inside dining areas only
SERVICESCAPE

(Bitner, 1992) [40][36]		 Performance-only scale measuring man-made physical surroundings combining both internal and external environments and their impact on customers and employees
DinEX

(Antun et al., 2010) [39][35]		 Measuring diners’ expectations of importance by adding social connectedness and homophily
GRSERV

(Chen et al., 2015) [21][34]		 Measuring service quality in green restaurants
ECOSERV

(Khan, 2003) [46][42]		 Measuring service quality expectations in eco-tourism
LODGESERV

(Knutson et al., 1990) [47][43]		 Measuring service quality in the lodging sector
LODGQUAL

(Getty and Thompson, 1994) [45][41]		 Measuring customers’ perceptions of delivered quality in the lodging industry
HOLSERV

(Wong et al., 1999) [55][51]		 Model pursuing hotel guests’ perceptions of the quality that they receive compared with their expectation
HOLSAT

(Tribe and Snaith, 1998) [53][49]		 Measuring holiday satisfaction
DIVEPERF

(O’Neill et al., 2000) [50][46]		 Assessing perceptions of diving services
SERVPERF

(Cronin and Taylor, 1992) [41][37]		 Performance-based measure of service quality, investigating the relationships between service quality, consumer satisfaction, and purchase intentions
FESTPERF

(Marković, Dorčić and Krnetić, 2015) [48][44]		 Measuring festival performance based on local food festival quality
GASTROFEST

(Campoverde-Aguirre, 2022) [57][53]		 Evaluating service quality at gastronomic festivals
TOURQUAL

(Mondo and Fiates, 2017) [49][45]		 Model for the quality evaluation of services at tourist attractions (tourism destinations, attractions, and events)
HISTOQUAL

(Frochot and Hughes, 2000) [42][38]		 Model evaluating the service quality provided in historic houses (historical attractions, museums, and castles)
CERM-CSQ

(Howat et al., 1996) [44][40]		 Measuring customer service quality in sports and leisure centers
SERVPEX

(Robledo, 2001) [52][48]		 Model evaluating airline service quality
INTSERVQUAL

(Frost and Kumar, 2000) [43][39] and

INTQUAL (Zailani et al., 2006) [56][52]		 Internal service quality models measuring employees’ perception of service quality in airlines and the hotel industry
CASERV

(Wong and In Fong, 2012) [54][50]		 Comprehensive instrument for measuring casino service quality
Quality is a prerequisite for perceived value, which is a multidimensional concept representing a “trade-off between benefits and sacrifices, as perceived by customers” [58][54] and which is also a prerequisite for competitiveness as well. If wresearche rs transfer the concept of quality from the entrepreneurial level to the destination level, we researchers can conclude that a destination that reflects overall quality is also competitive. Quality can thus be understood as “the ability to optimize the attractiveness of a destination’s resources in order to offer high-quality, unique, and destination-specific tourism services, resulting in effective and sustainable use of its resources” [59,60][55][56]. Morrison [61][57] argues that physical structures and their size are not as significant to visitors compared with their quality; the quality of services provided by the staff, including their hospitality, and the welcoming attitude of residents are also significant factors. Quality management therefore plays a crucial role in the development of a destination’s offer [61,62][57][58]. Competence is an important resource for determining competitive advantage; resource distinctiveness arises through the identification of a unique pattern of competences [63][59]. The quality of competitive advantage depends on the quality of interaction processes (coordination of resources and competences) and on the quality of resources and competences contributed by business partners [64,65][60][61]. By definition, competence (or competency) “is the ability to do something” and is “the quality of being competent”, with the primary focus being on competent individuals who possess the ability or capability to complete the task [66][62]. Competence can be categorized as: (1) individual competence that focuses on the personal and cognitive traits of competent managers or employees in relation to their job performance; (2) organizational competence that focuses on corporation-wide strategic competence and collective practices; and (3) comprehensive competence that integrates both individual and organizational strategic competences [67][63]. Therefore, “the factors governable by the organizations, which make them survive and succeed, are the competence factors—and of the whole of those factors from a work effort of the simplest floor person to the biggest technological breakthroughs and financing possibilities; everything within the boundaries of an organization that enables its performance, belongs to its competence” [68][64]. Because a destination, being a legal entity (a non-living thing), possesses organizational competences, it can also possess destination competences. Consequently, destination competences encompass everything within a destination’s boundaries that enables its performance and success. Based on this observation, wreserache rs define destination competences in ourresearchs' model as everything within the boundaries of a destination that enables its performance and success, including: (1) destination resources (core and supporting resources), (2) gastronomic resources (restaurant quality and service quality), and (3) GDC (quality, innovativeness, creativity, sustainability, and local features). Furthermore, Hjalager [69][65] argued that the destination serves as a repository of competence and knowledge, which is crucial for the development of products and services (i.e., the destination offer). Intellectual capital, being a set of intangible resources and capabilities comprising different categories of knowledge, contributes to a competitive advantage and consists of: (1) human capital (knowledge, experiences, skills, and motivation embedded in employees), (2) structural capital (methods, capabilities, routines, and procedures embedded in the organization), and (3) relational capital (capabilities, knowledge, and procedures embedded in the organization and arising from relationships with suppliers, customers, partners, and others) [70][66]. Destination competitiveness is a highly significant topic in tourism, and numerous studies have been conducted to study this element. A groundbreaking contribution is Ritchie and Crouch’s Conceptual model of destination competitiveness [71][67], which offers a comprehensive interpretation of destination competitiveness by asserting that a destination’s competitiveness depends on its ability to generate and/or increase tourism expenditure. Today, competition among destinations is no longer only focused “on the single aspects of the tourism product”; rather, it is viewed as an “integrated and compound” set of tourism services that form the destination offer [36,72][29][68]. Therefore, a destination that places a strong emphasis on gastronomic tourism with a high level of gastronomy can be referred to as a gastronomic destination.

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