Skin Photoprotection by Polyphenols: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Peter Tang and Version 1 by Farid Menaa.

Polyphenols are phytochemicals with proven antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties. Premature aging and UV-induced skin conditions could be better overcome by topical polyphenols nanoformulations. Further, polyphenols nanoformulations can be of great interest for the cosmetic industries and any individuals who want to improve their skin appearance. Examples in this regard are provided and the potential toxicity issues related to the use of nanomaterials are highlighted.

  • Nanomaterials
  • Nanoparticles
  • Nanomedicine
  • Bioactive molecules
  • Antioxidants
  • Antinflammatory
  • Dermatology
  • Polyphenols
  • Cosmetics
  • Topical application
  • Skin conditions

Please note: Below is an entry draft based on your previous paper, which is wrirren tightly around the entry title. Since it may not be very comprehensive, we kindly invite you to modify it (both title and content can be replaced) according to your extensive expertise. We believe this entry would be beneficial to generate more views for your work. In addition, no worry about the entry format, we will correct it and add references after the entry is online (you can also send a word file to us, and we will help you with submitting).

 

Definition

Skin is continuously exposed to environmental insults. Strong or chronic exposition to a variety of external stresses, such as ultraviolet radiation (aka solar UV), may contribute to premature skin aging, immune-suppression and tumorigenesis/carcinogenesis (i.e., tumor/cancer formation). To supplement the skin’s antioxidant arsenal, polyphenols (aka polyhydroxyphenols) can be used as potent nutraceutics and cosmeceutics. Indeed, this superfamily of naturally occurring phytochemicals is gaining popularity because of their potential skin benefits (e.g., prevention, protection and repair of skin photo-induced damages) through modulation of several signaling pathways. Depending on their structure and physical-chemical features (e.g., bioavailability), their beneficial effects (e.g., enhanced antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, anti-aging properties) may vary. Therefore, topical or oral application of polyphenols, in their bulk- or nano-form, would represent a valuable preventive and therapeutic option to provide clinical benefits for individuals with certain photo-induced skin conditions (e.g., skin inflammation, skin cancers, premature skin aging, skin sunburns).

1. Introduction 

For over a decade, reports from animal models and humans have increasingly provided evidence that polyphenols have potential benefits on skin (e.g., photoprotection, anti-aging features), due to their antiinflammatory, antioxidant and dexoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair properties.17 [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

Polyphenols are represented by a superfamily of various naturally occurring phytochemicals (.＞4000) that are abundant in our diet (e.g., vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds).8,9 [8][9] These compounds are divided into three main classes (i.e., flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans), which are further subdivided according to their structural similarities (e.g., number of phenol rings).1,8,9 [1][8][9]

Their chemical structures, molecular mechanisms, metabolism, relative systemic bioavailability, plant source and content of various dietary polyphenols have been reviewed elsewhere.813 [8][9][10][11][12][13]

Interestingly, a controlled transdermal application of certain polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol and EGCG) for treating skin conditions (e.g., photo-damaged skin), in their bulk- or, preferentially, their nano-forms, usually present the following advantages compared to that of oral or intravenous intake: (1) maximization of local exposure, (2) an increase in the efficacy, (3) improvement of the stability (e.g., decrease of photo-induced polyphenols degradation), (4) minimization of the administered dose, (5) enhancement of the bioavailability at the targeted site (e.g., skin), and (6) reduction of the systemic toxicity (i.e., contribution to the individual’'s safety).1420 [14][15][16][17][18][19][20]

Chronic exposure or acute high doses of UV, such as solar ultraviolet irradiation (UVR)—especially UV-type A radiation (UVA, 315-400 nm), which constitutes about 95% of the UVR in natural sunlight reaching the earth’'s surface—is known to induce a series of damage to the skin (e.g., direct molecular damage such as DNA strand breaks and/or oxidative stress-mediated damage such as lipid peroxidation). This, subsequently, can lead to photoaging (aka UV-induced premature/accelerated skin aging) or photo-carcinogenesis (aka skin UV-induced cancers).2125 [21][22][23][24][25] For instance, it is known that after UVR-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), the metalloproteinases (MMP)-1, -3, -9 levels are increased, causing collagen and elastin degradation before forming coarse wrinkles and sagging skin.26 [26] However, these overall effects can be reduced by polyphenols (e.g., teaderived catechins), which consequently contribute to a slow-down of the aging process and reduce the incidence of skin cancers (e.g., melanomas or nonmelanomas such as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) or basal cell carcinoma (BCC)).1,2638 [1][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]

Therefore, the evaluation of skin polyphenol-based products (e.g., polyphenol-rich sunscreens),6,29,3943 [6][29][39][40][41][42][43] as well as the potential benefit of dietary polyphenols, 31,4448[31][44][45][46][47][48] is promising and remains a challenging field of research.

Nevertheless, one should still keep in mind that some polyphenols could be a double-edged sword for the human skin, exerting not only protective (i.e., antioxidation) but also possible damaging actions (e.g., allergic reactions, contact dermatitis, phytodermatoses, and photo-phytodermatoses, enhanced UV-induced apoptosis of “"normal”" cells) depending on their physico-chemical parameters.13,14 [13][14]

2. Skin PhotoProtective Effects of Polyphenols: An Overview

A number of scientific studies with certain phytochemicals such as tea-, grape-, or soy-derived polyphenols, performed in animal models and humans/human cells exposed to UV-induced DNA damage, have provided a molecular basis to mechanistically explain the anti-skin photoaging (e.g., anti-accelerated signs of aging such as reduced wrinkles, improvement in elastic tissue content) as well as the skin photo-chemopreventive effect (e.g., DNA repair and antioxidant activities, anti-photo-induced immune suppression such as anti-depletion of antigen-presenting cells (APC)), suggesting that these natural compounds can serve as alternatives or enhancers to sunscreens or as dietary supplements.

EGCG is a green-tea derived catechin polyphenol (i.e., flavanol). Several studies27,28,30,3238,4955 [27][28][30][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][49][50][51][52][53][54][55] have reported potential benefits of oral administration or topical applications of EGCG for preventing or treating skin conditions (e.g., skin photo-damage) in animals (e.g., usually mice) and humans. Indeed, EGCG displays a number of features such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and DNA repair activities.4 [4]

Resveratrol is a phytoalexin antioxidant derived from natural products such as the skin of red grapes, peanuts, blueberries and cranberries.8,9 [8][9] Resveratrol has received extensive attention through the link with the “"French paradox,”" and later with its chemopreventive activity demonstrated in animal cancer models and in humans.45,5667 [45][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67]

Silymarin consists of a family of flavonoids (silibinin (a major member68 [68]), isosilybin, silychristin, silydianin, and taxifoline) commonly found in the dried fruit of the milk thistle plant Silybum marianum (L. Gaertner). Silymarin was recently shown to display chemopreventive effects, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory properties. Studies have also revealed that it can be valuable against photo-induced carcinogenesis and premature aging,6871 [68][69][70][71] in various animal tumor models7276 [72][73][74][75][76] and humans.7780 [77][78][79][80] Moreover, silymarin may favorably supplement sunscreen protection.6870,74 [68][69][70][74]

The soybean isoflavone genistein (aglycone) is a potent antioxidant, a specific inhibitor of protein tyrosine kinase, and a phytoestrogen with photoprotective properties.81 [81] During the past decade, a series of studies and reports have demonstrated that genistein (as topical, oral or systemic agent) has significant antiphotocarcinogenic and anti-photoaging effects in animal models (e.g., mice, pigs)8283 [82][83] and human cells (e.g., fibroblasts, keratinocytes).8488 [84][85][86][87][88]

Ellagic acid (EA) is a phenolic acid found in a wide variety of fruits and nuts such as raspberries, strawberries, pomegranate, walnuts, grapes, and blackcurrants. 8990[89][90] These molecules are receiving particular attention as agents that may have potential bioactivities preventing skin photo-damage in human cells due to their potent ability to scavenge ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS),9092 [90][91][92] decreasing the expression of pro-MMP-2 and pro-MMP-9, precursors of two elastolytic enzymes,93 [93] and inhibiting cell proliferation.93 [93]

3. Conclution

Most of the polyphenols presented in this chapter are emerging as efficient skin photoprotectors. Indeed, the overall studies performed in animal models and/or in humans show that these phytochemicals exert skin photoprotective properties, especially through their antioxidant (i.e., as scavengers of free radicals), anti-inflammatory, and antitumoral activities. It is becoming clear that topical/transdermal application of polyphenols (i.e., as cosmeceutics) presents certain

 advantages (e.g., lower systemic toxicity usually associated with required increased doses to reach a specific tissue) over oral or intravenous administration (e.g., as nutraceutics) of these phytochemicals. Further, polyphenol nano-formulations are proving to have advanced pharmacological effects (e.g., efficacy, safety, selectivity) compared to the therapeutic entities they contain. Evidently, although it appears that the prospects are very bright for the possible use of polyphenols in skin photoprotection, more clinical trials are needed with pure bulk- or nano-polyphenols formulations.

References

  1. Menaa F., Menaa A., Tréton J.. Polyphenols against skin aging; Watson R.R., Preedy V.R., Zibadi S., Eds.; Academic Press: Sandiego, CA, USA, 2014; pp. 819-830.
  2. Farrukh Afaq; Polyphenols: Skin Photoprotection and Inhibition of Photocarcinogenesis. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry 2011, 11, 1200-1215, 10.2174/13895575111091200.
  3. Stéphane Quideau; Denis Deffieux; Céline Douat-Casassus; Laurent Pouységu; Plant Polyphenols: Chemical Properties, Biological Activities, and Synthesis. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2011, 50, 586-621, 10.1002/anie.201000044.
  4. Joi A. Nichols; Santosh K. Katiyar; Skin photoprotection by natural polyphenols: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and DNA repair mechanisms. Archives of Dermatological Research 2009, 302, 71-83, 10.1007/s00403-009-1001-3.
  5. Felipe Jiménez; Thomas F. Mitts; Kela Liu; Yanting Wang; Aleksander Hinek; Ellagic and Tannic Acids Protect Newly Synthesized Elastic Fibers from Premature Enzymatic Degradation in Dermal Fibroblast Cultures. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2006, 126, 1272-1280, 10.1038/sj.jid.5700285.
  6. Sheldon R. Pinnell; Cutaneous photodamage, oxidative stress, and topical antioxidant protection. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2003, 48, 1-22, 10.1067/mjd.2003.16.
  7. P. Morganti; C. Bruno; F. Guarneri; A. Cardillo; P. Del Ciotto; F. Valenzano; Role of topical and nutritional supplement to modify the oxidative stress*. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 2002, 24, 331-339, 10.1046/j.1467-2494.2002.00159.x.
  8. Massimo D'archivio; Carmela Filesi; Roberta Di Benedetto; Raffaella Gargiulo; Claudio Giovannini; Roberta Masella; Polyphenols, dietary sources and bioavailability.. Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità 2007, 43, 348-361.
  9. Claudine Manach; Augustin Scalbert; Christine Morand; Christian Rémésy; Liliana Jiménez; Polyphenols: food sources and bioavailability. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004, 79, 727-747, 10.1093/ajcn/79.5.727.
  10. Scholz; Gary Williamson; Interactions Affecting the Bioavailability of Dietary Polyphenols in Vivo. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2007, 77, 224-235, 10.1024/0300-9831.77.3.224.
  11. Claudine Manach; Gary Williamson; Christine Morand; Augustin Scalbert; Christian Rémésy; Bioavailability and bioefficacy of polyphenols in humans. I. Review of 97 bioavailability studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005, 81, 230S-242S, 10.1093/ajcn/81.1.230s.
  12. G. Williamson; Claudine Manach; Bioavailability and bioefficacy of polyphenols in humans. II. Review of 93 intervention studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005, 81, 243S-255S, 10.1093/ajcn/81.1.243s.
  13. Liudmila Korkina; Saveria Pastore; Chiara De Luca; Vladimir A. Kostyuk; Metabolism of Plant Polyphenols in the Skin: Beneficial Versus Deleterious Effects. Current Drug Metabolism 2008, 9, 710-729, 10.2174/138920008786049267.
  14. Menaa F., Menaa A., Menaa B.. Polyphenols nano-formulations for topical delivery and skin tissue engineering; Watson R.R., Preedy V.R., Zibadi S., Eds.; Academic Press: Sandiego, CA, USA, 2014; pp. 839-848.
  15. Charles-Henry Cottart; Valã©Rie Nivet-Antoine; Christelle Laguillier-Morizot; Jean-Louis Beaudeux; Resveratrol bioavailability and toxicity in humans. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 2009, 54, 7-16, 10.1002/mnfr.200900437.
  16. Howard Epstein; Cosmeceuticals and polyphenols. Clinics in Dermatology 2009, 27, 475-478, 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2009.05.011.
  17. Tatsiana G. Shutava; Shantanu S. Balkundi; Pranitha Vangala; Joshua J. Steffan; Rebecca L. Bigelow; James A. Cardelli; D. Patrick O’Neal; Yuri Lvov; Layer-by-Layer-Coated Gelatin Nanoparticles as a Vehicle for Delivery of Natural Polyphenols. ACS Nano 2009, 3, 1877-1885, 10.1021/nn900451a.
  18. A. Barras; A. Mezzetti; A. Richard; S. Lazzaroni; S. Roux; P. Melnyk; D. Betbeder; N. Monfilliette-Dupont; Formulation and characterization of polyphenol-loaded lipid nanocapsules. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2009, 379, 270-277, 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.05.054.
  19. Chow H.H., Cai Y., Hakim I.A., Crowell J.A., Shahi F., Brooks C.A., et al.; Pharmacokinetics and safety of green tea polyphenols after multiple-dose administration of epigallocatechingallate and polyphenon E in healthy individuals. Clin. Cancer Res. 2003, 9, 3312-3319.
  20. A. Scalbert; Christine Morand; Claudine Manach; Christian Rémésy; Absorption and metabolism of polyphenols in the gut and impact on health. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 2002, 56, 276-282, 10.1016/s0753-3322(02)00205-6.
  21. Kozina L.S., Borzova I.V., Arutiunov V.A., Ryzhak G.A.; The role of oxidative stress in skin aging. Adv. Gerontol. 2012, 25, 217-222.
  22. P.S. Peres; V.A. Terra; F.A. Guarnier; R. Cecchini; A.L. Cecchini; Photoaging and chronological aging profile: Understanding oxidation of the skin. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 2011, 103, 93-97, 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2011.01.019.
  23. Ichihashi M., Ueda M., Budiyanto A.; UV-induced skin damage. Toxicology 2003, 189, 21-39.
  24. Christel Masson; Farid Menaa; Ghislaine Pinon-Lataillade; Yveline Frobert; Sylvie Chevillard; J. Pablo Radicella; Alain Sarasin; Jaime F. Angulo; Global genome repair is required to activate KIN17, a UVC-responsive gene involved in DNA replication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2003, 100, 616-621, 10.1073/pnas.0236176100.
  25. Mukhtar H., Elmets C.A.; Photocarcinogenesis: Mechanisms, Models and Human Health Implications. Photochemistry and Photobiology 1996, 63, 355-355, 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1996.tb03039.x.
  26. Hsiu-Mei Chiang; Tsen-Jung Lin; Chen-Yuan Chiu; Chiung-Wen Chang; Kuo-Chiu Hsu; Pei-Ching Fan; Kuo-Ching Wen; Coffea arabica extract and its constituents prevent photoaging by suppressing MMPs expression and MAP kinase pathway. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2011, 49, 309-318, 10.1016/j.fct.2010.10.034.
  27. Santosh K. Katiyar; Green tea prevents non-melanoma skin cancer by enhancing DNA repair. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 2011, 508, 152-158, 10.1016/j.abb.2010.11.015.
  28. Murat Turkoglu; T Uğurlu; G Gedik; A M Yılmaz; A. Süha Yalçın; In vivo evaluation of black and green tea dermal products against UV radiation.. Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics 2010, 4, 362-367.
  29. S. Saraf; Chanchal Deep Kaur; Phytoconstituents as photoprotective novel cosmetic formulations. Pharmacognosy Reviews 2010, 4, 1-11, 10.4103/0973-7847.65319.
  30. Melissa M. Camouse; Diana Santo Domingo; Freddie R. Swain; Edward P. Conrad; Mary S. Matsui; Daniel Maes; Lieve Declercq; Kevin D. Cooper; Seth R. Stevens; Elma D. Baron; et al. Topical application of green and white tea extracts provides protection from solar-simulated ultraviolet light in human skin. Experimental Dermatology 2009, 18, 522-526, 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00818.x.
  31. Eve Bralley; Phillip Greenspan; James L. Hargrove; Diane K. Hartle; Inhibition of Hyaluronidase Activity by Select Sorghum Brans. Journal of Medicinal Food 2008, 11, 307-312, 10.1089/jmf.2007.547.
  32. Annie E. Chiu; Joanna L. Chan Ab; Dale G. Kern; Sabine Kohler; Wingfield E. Rehmus; Alexa B. Kimball; Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Green Tea Extracts in the Clinical and Histologic Appearance of Photoaging Skin. Dermatologic Surgery 2006, 31, 855-860, 10.1111/j.1524-4725.2005.31731.
  33. Farrukh Afaq; Nihal Ahmad; Hasan Mukhtar; Suppression of UVB-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor kappa B by green tea polyphenol in SKH-1 hairless mice. Oncogene 2003, 22, 9254-9264, 10.1038/sj.onc.1207035.
  34. Praveen K Vayalil; Craig A Elmets; Santosh K. Katiyar; Treatment of green tea polyphenols in hydrophilic cream prevents UVB-induced oxidation of lipids and proteins, depletion of antioxidant enzymes and phosphorylation of MAPK proteins in SKH-1 hairless mouse skin.. Carcinogenesis 2003, 24, 927-936, 10.1093/carcin/bgg025.
  35. Santosh K. Katiyar; H Mukhtar; Green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate treatment to mouse skin prevents UVB-induced infiltration of leukocytes, depletion of antigen-presenting cells, and oxidative stress.. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 2001, 69, 719-726.
  36. Santosh Katiyar; Craig Elmets; Green tea polyphenolic antioxidants and skin photoprotection (Review). International Journal of Oncology 2001, 18, 1307-1313, 10.3892/ijo.18.6.1307.
  37. Craig A. Elmets; Divya Singh; Karen Tubesing; Mary Matsui; Santosh Katiyar; Hasan Mukhtar; Cutaneous photoprotection from ultraviolet injury by green tea polyphenols. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2001, 44, 425-432, 10.1067/mjd.2001.112919.
  38. Santosh K. Katiyar; Craig A. Elmets; Rajesh Agarwal; Hasan Mukhtar; PROTECTION AGAINST ULTRAVIOLET-B RADIATION-INDUCED LOCAL and SYSTEMIC SUPPRESSION OF CONTACT HYPERSENSITIVITY and EDEMA RESPONSES IN C3H/HeN MICE BY GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS. Photochemistry and Photobiology 2008, 62, 855-861, 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1995.tb09147.x.
  39. Talita Pizza Anunciato; Pedro Alves Da Rocha Filho; Carotenoids and polyphenols in nutricosmetics, nutraceuticals, and cosmeceuticals. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 2012, 11, 51-54, 10.1111/j.1473-2165.2011.00600.x.
  40. Lucy Chen; Judy Y. Hu; Steven Q. Wang; The role of antioxidants in photoprotection: A critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2012, 67, 1013-1024, 10.1016/j.jaad.2012.02.009.
  41. Nevia Delalle-Lozica; Local therapy as basic anti-aging prevention.. Acta Clinica Croatica 2010, 49, 529-536.
  42. Bruce M. Freedman; Topical antioxidant application enhances the effects of facial microdermabrasion. Journal of Dermatological Treatment 2009, 20, 82-87, 10.1080/09546630802301818.
  43. Mary S. Matsui; Andrew Hsia; Janine D. Miller; Kaija Hanneman; Heather Scull; Kevin D. Cooper; Elma Baron; Non-Sunscreen Photoprotection: Antioxidants Add Value to a Sunscreen. Journal of Investigative Dermatology Symposium Proceedings 2009, 14, 56-59, 10.1038/jidsymp.2009.14.
  44. Patricia OyetakinWhite; Heather Tribout; Elma D. Baron; Protective Mechanisms of Green Tea Polyphenols in Skin. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2012, 2012, 1-8, 10.1155/2012/560682.
  45. Veronique S. Chachay; Carl M. J. Kirkpatrick; Ingrid J. Hickman; Maree Ferguson; Johannes B. Prins; Jennifer H. Martin; Resveratrol - pills to replace a healthy diet?. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2011, 72, 27-38, 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03966.x.
  46. Mary Ndiaye; Carol Philippe; Hasan Mukhtar; Nihal Ahmad; The grape antioxidant resveratrol for skin disorders: Promise, prospects, and challenges. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 2011, 508, 164-170, 10.1016/j.abb.2010.12.030.
  47. Zoe Diana Draelos; Nutrition and enhancing youthful-appearing skin. Clinics in Dermatology 2010, 28, 400-408, 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.019.
  48. Nick Morley; Tim Clifford; Leo Salter; Sandra Campbell; David Gould; Alison Curnow; The green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate and green tea can protect human cellular DNA from ultraviolet and visible radiation-induced damage. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine 2005, 21, 15-22, 10.1111/j.1600-0781.2005.00119.x.
  49. Santosh K. Katiyar; Mudit Vaid; Harry Van Steeg; Syed M. Meeran; Green tea polyphenols prevent UV-induced immunosuppression by rapid repair of DNA damage and enhancement of nucleotide excision repair genes.. Cancer Prevention Research 2010, 3, 179-89, 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0044.
  50. Syed M. Meeran; Sudheer K. Mantena; Craig A. Elmets; Santosh K. Katiyar; (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Prevents Photocarcinogenesis in Mice through Interleukin-12–Dependent DNA Repair. Cancer Research 2006, 66, 5512-5520, 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-0218.
  51. Praveen K. Vayalil; Anshu Mittal; Yukihiko Hara; Craig A. Elmets; Santosh K. Katiyar; Green Tea Polyphenols Prevent Ultraviolet Light-Induced Oxidative Damage and Matrix Metalloproteinases Expression in Mouse Skin. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2004, 122, 1480-1487, 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2004.22622.x.
  52. Anshu Mittal; Chandrika Piyathilake; Yukihiko Hara; Santosh K. Katiyar; Exceptionally High Protection of Photocarcinogenesis by Topical Application of (-)-Epi gal locatechin-3-Gal late in Hydrophilic Cream in SKH-1 Hairless Mouse Model: Relationship to Inhibition of UVB-Induced Global DNA Hypomethylation. Neoplasia 2003, 5, 555-565, 10.1016/s1476-5586(03)80039-8.
  53. JongIl Kim; Jae-Sung Hwang; Youn-Ki Cho; Yongku Han; Young-Jin Jeon; K H Yang; Protective Effects of (–)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate on UVA- and UVB-Induced Skin Damage. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology 2001, 14, 11-19, 10.1159/000056329.
  54. Santosh K. Katiyar; Farrukh Afaq; Kashif Azizuddin; Hasan Mukhtar; Inhibition of UVB-Induced Oxidative Stress-Mediated Phosphorylation of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathways in Cultured Human Epidermal Keratinocytes by Green Tea Polyphenol (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 2001, 176, 110-117, 10.1006/taap.2001.9276.
  55. Santosh K. Katiyar; Mary S. Matsui; Craig A. Elmets; Hasan Mukhtar; Polyphenolic Antioxidant (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate from Green Tea Reduces UVB-Induced Inflammatory Responses and Infiltration of Leukocytes in Human Skin. Photochemistry and Photobiology 1999, 69, 148-53, 10.1562/0031-8655(1999)069<0148:paegfg>2.3.co;2.
  56. Zhen Yang; Sun Yang; Bobbye J. Misner; Rita Chiu; Feng Liu; Frank L. Meyskens; Nitric oxide initiates progression of human melanoma via a feedback loop mediated by apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease-1/redox factor-1, which is inhibited by resveratrol. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics 2008, 7, 3751-3760, 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-08-0562.
  57. Sharmila Shankar; Chemoprevention by resveratrol: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Frontiers in Bioscience 2007, 12, 4839, 10.2741/2432.
  58. Meishiang Jang; Lining Cai; George O. Udeani; Karla V. Slowing; Cathy F. Thomas; Christopher W. W. Beecher; Harry H. S. Fong; Norman R. Farnsworth; A. Douglas Kinghorn; Rajendra G. Mehta; et al.Richard C. MoonJohn M. Pezzuto Cancer Chemopreventive Activity of Resveratrol, a Natural Product Derived from Grapes. Science 1997, 275, 218-220, 10.1126/science.275.5297.218.
  59. S. Renaud; M. De Lorgeril; Wine, alcohol, platelets, and the French paradox for coronary heart disease. The Lancet 1992, 339, 1523-1526, 10.1016/0140-6736(92)91277-f.
  60. Kwang Ho Kim; Jung Ho Back; Yucui Zhu; Josh Arbesman; Mohammad Athar; Levy Kopelovich; Arianna L. Kim; David R. Bickers; Resveratrol Targets Transforming Growth Factor-β2 Signaling to Block UV-Induced Tumor Progression. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2011, 131, 195-202, 10.1038/jid.2010.250.
  61. Moammir Hasan Aziz; Shannon Reagan‐Shaw; Jianqiang Wu; B. Jack Longley; Nihal Ahmad; Chemoprevention of skin cancer by grape constituent resveratrol: relevance to human disease?. The FASEB Journal 2005, 19, 1193-1195, 10.1096/fj.04-3582fje.
  62. Moammir Hasan Aziz; Farrukh Afaq; Nihal Ahmad; Prevention of Ultraviolet-B Radiation Damage by Resveratrol in Mouse Skin Is Mediated via Modulation in Survivin¶. Photochemistry and Photobiology 2005, 81, 25, 10.1562/2004-08-13-ra-274.1.
  63. Shannon Reagan-Shaw; Farrukh Afaq; Moammir Hasan Aziz; Nihal Ahmad; Modulations of critical cell cycle regulatory events during chemoprevention of ultraviolet B-mediated responses by resveratrol in SKH-1 hairless mouse skin. Oncogene 2004, 23, 5151-5160, 10.1038/sj.onc.1207666.
  64. Farrukh Afaq; Vaqar Mustafa Adhami; Nihal Ahmad; Prevention of short-term ultraviolet B radiation-mediated damages by resveratrol in SKH-1 hairless mice.. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 2003, 186, 28-37.
  65. Yong Liu; Fangxiao Chan; Haimei Sun; Jihong Yan; Dongying Fan; Dongzhi Zhao; Jing An; De‐Shan Zhou; Resveratrol protects human keratinocytes HaCaT cells from UVA-induced oxidative stress damage by downregulating Keap1 expression. European Journal of Pharmacology 2011, 650, 130-137, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.009.
  66. Vaqar Mustafa Adhami; Farrukh Afaq; Nihal Ahmad; Suppression of Ultraviolet B Exposure-Mediated Activation of NF-κB in Normal Human Keratinocytes by Resveratrol1. Neoplasia 2003, 5, 74-82.
  67. Sreekanth Narayanapillai; Chapla Agarwal; Cynthia Tilley; Rajesh Agarwal; Silibinin Is a Potent Sensitizer of UVA Radiation-induced Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in Human Keratinocyte HaCaT Cells†. Photochemistry and Photobiology 2011, 88, 1135-1140, 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2011.01050.x.
  68. Santosh K. Katiyar; Silymarin and skin cancer prevention: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects (Review).. International Journal of Oncology 2005, 26, 169-176, 10.3892/ijo.26.1.169.
  69. Santosh K. Katiyar; Mudit Vaid; Molecular mechanisms of inhibition of photocarcinogenesis by silymarin, a phytochemical from milk thistle (Silybum marianum L. Gaertn). International Journal of Oncology 2010, 36, 1053-1060, 10.3892/ijo_00000586.
  70. Céline Couteau; Clotilde Cheignon; Eva Paparis; Laurence J M Coiffard; Silymarin, a molecule of interest for topical photoprotection. Natural Product Research 2012, 26, 2211-2214, 10.1080/14786419.2011.637219.
  71. Rajesh Agarwal; Charu Agarwal; Haruyo Ichikawa; Rana P Singh; Bharat B. Aggarwal; Anticancer potential of silymarin: from bench to bed side.. Anticancer Research 2007, 26, 4457-4498.
  72. Mudit Vaid; Ram Prasad; Tripti Singh; Craig A. Elmets; Hui Xu; Santosh K. Katiyar; Silymarin inhibits ultraviolet radiation-induced immune suppression through DNA repair-dependent activation of dendritic cells and stimulation of effector T cells. Biochemical Pharmacology 2013, 85, 1066-1076, 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.01.026.
  73. Katiyar S.K., Meleth S., Sharma S.D.; Silymarin, a flavonoid from milk thistle (Silybum marianum L.), inhibits UV-induced oxidative stress through targeting infiltrating CD11b1 cells in mouse skin. Photochem. Photobiol. 2008, 84, 266-271.
  74. S. M. Meeran; Silymarin inhibits UV radiation-induced immunosuppression through augmentation of interleukin-12 in mice. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics 2006, 5, 1660-1668, 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-06-0095.
  75. Santosh K. Katiyar; Treatment of silymarin, a plant flavonoid, prevents ultraviolet light-induced immune suppression and oxidative stress in mouse skin.. International Journal of Oncology 2002, 21, 1213-1222, 10.3892/ijo.21.6.1213.
  76. Santosh K. Katiyar; Neil J. Korman; Hasan Mukhtar; Rajesh Agarwal; Protective effects of silymarin against photocarcinogenesis in a mouse skin model.. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute 1997, 89, 556-565, 10.1093/jnci/89.8.556.
  77. Santosh K. Katiyar; Sudheer K. Mantena; Syed M. Meeran; Silymarin Protects Epidermal Keratinocytes from Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced Apoptosis and DNA Damage by Nucleotide Excision Repair Mechanism. PLOS ONE 2011, 6, e21410, 10.1371/journal.pone.0021410.
  78. Alena Rajnochová Svobodová; Adela Zdarilova; Jana Mališková; Hana Mikulková; Daniela Walterova; Jitka Vostálová; Attenuation of UVA-induced damage to human keratinocytes by silymarin. Journal of Dermatological Science 2007, 46, 21-30, 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2006.12.009.
  79. L.-H. Li; L.-J. Wu; S.-I. Tashiro; S. Onodera; F. Uchiumi; Takashi Ikejima; Activation of the SIRT1 pathway and modulation of the cell cycle were involved in silymarin's protection against UV-induced A375-S2 cell apoptosis. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research 2007, 9, 245-252, 10.1080/10286020600604260.
  80. Lin-Hao Li; Li-Jun Wu; Bei Zhou; Zhen Wu; Shin-Ichi Tashiro; Satoshi Onodera; Fumiaki Uchiumi; Takashi Ikejima; Silymarin Prevents UV Irradiation-Induced A375-S2 Cell Apoptosis. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 2004, 27, 1031-1036, 10.1248/bpb.27.1031.
  81. Huachen Wei; Rao Saladi; Yuhun Lu; Yan Wang; Sapna R. Palep; Julian Moore; Robert Phelps; Eileen Shyong; Mark G. Lebwohl; Isoflavone Genistein: Photoprotection and Clinical Implications in Dermatology. The Journal of Nutrition 2003, 133, 3811S-3819S, 10.1093/jn/133.11.3811s.
  82. Jing-Yi Lin; Joshua A. Tournas; James A. Burch; Nancy A. Monteiro-Riviere; Jan Zielinski; Topical isoflavones provide effective photoprotection to skin. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine 2008, 24, 61-66, 10.1111/j.1600-0781.2008.00329.x.
  83. Y Wang; X Zhang; M Lebwohl; V DeLeo; H Wei; Inhibition of ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced c-fos and c-jun expression in vivo by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein. Carcinogenesis 1998, 19, 649-654, 10.1093/carcin/19.4.649.
  84. Yi Na Wang; Wei Wu; Hong Chao Chen; Hong Fang; Genistein protects against UVB-induced senescence-like characteristics in human dermal fibroblast by p66Shc down-regulation. Journal of Dermatological Science 2010, 58, 19-27, 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2010.02.002.
  85. Julian O. Moore; Yongyin Wang; William G. Stebbins; Dayuan Gao; Xueyan Zhou; Robert Phelps; Mark Lebwohl; Huachen Wei; Photoprotective effect of isoflavone genistein on ultraviolet B-induced pyrimidine dimer formation and PCNA expression in human reconstituted skin and its implications in dermatology and prevention of cutaneous carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 2006, 27, 1627-1635, 10.1093/carcin/bgi367.
  86. Cécile Mazière; Françoise Dantin; Françoise Dubois; René Santus; Jean-Claude Mazière; Biphasic effect of UVA radiation on STAT1 activity and tyrosine phosphorylation in cultured human keratinocytes. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 2000, 28, 1430-1437, 10.1016/s0891-5849(00)00264-1.
  87. Paulo Filipe; João N. Silva; Josiane Haigle; João P. Freitas; Afonso Fernandes; René Santus; Patrice Morlière; Contrasting action of flavonoids on phototoxic effects induced in human skin fibroblasts by UVA alone or UVA plus cyamemazine, a phototoxic neuroleptic. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences 2005, 4, 420-428, 10.1039/b416811a.
  88. Sewon Kang; J.H. Chung; Joo Heung Lee; Gary J. Fisher; Yian Sheng Wan; Elizabeth A. Duell; John J. Voorhees; Topical N-Acetyl Cysteine and Genistein Prevent Ultraviolet-Light-Induced Signaling That Leads to Photoaging in Human Skin in vivo. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2003, 120, 835-841, 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12122.x.
  89. K.Indira Priyadarsini; Sujata M. Khopde; S. Santosh Kumar; Hari Mohan; Free Radical Studies of Ellagic Acid, a Natural Phenolic Antioxidant. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2002, 50, 2200-2206, 10.1021/jf011275g.
  90. Begoña De Ancos; Esther M. Gonzalez; M. Pilar Cano; Ellagic acid, vitamin C, and total phenolic contents and radical scavenging capacity affected by freezing and frozen storage in raspberry fruit.. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2000, 48, 4565-4570, 10.1021/jf0001684.
  91. You-Cheng Hseu; Chih-Wei Chou; K.J. Senthil Kumar; Ke-Ting Fu; Hui-Min Wang; Li-Sung Hsu; Yueh-Hsiung Kuo; Chi-Rei Wu; Ssu-Ching Chen; Hsin-Ling Yang; et al. Ellagic acid protects human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells against UVA-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis through the upregulation of the HO-1 and Nrf-2 antioxidant genes. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2012, 50, 1245-1255, 10.1016/j.fct.2012.02.020.
  92. Ji-Young Bae; Jung-Suk Choi; Sang-Wook Kang; Yong-Jin Lee; Jinseu Park; Young-Hee Kang; Dietary compound ellagic acid alleviates skin wrinkle and inflammation induced by UV-B irradiation. Experimental Dermatology 2010, 19, e182-e190, 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2009.01044.x.
  93. Jack N. Losso; Rishipal R Bansode; Alfred Trappey; Hiba A Bawadi; Robert Truax; In vitro anti-proliferative activities of ellagic acid. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2004, 15, 672-678, 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.06.004.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback