Consolidation of Gold and Gadolinium Nanoparticles: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Jessie Wu and Version 1 by Maria Anthi Kouri.

The multifactorial nature of cancer still classifies the disease as one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Modern medical sciences are following an interdisciplinary approach that has been fueled by the nanoscale revolution of the past years. The exploitation of high-Z materials, in combination with ionizing or non-ionizing radiation, promises to overcome restrictions in medical imaging and to augment the efficacy of current therapeutic modalities. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have proven their value among the scientific community in various therapeutic and diagnostic techniques. However, the high level of multiparametric demands of AuNP experiments in combination with their biocompatibility and cytotoxicity levels remain crucial issues. Gadolinium NPs (GdNPs), have presented high biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, and excellent hemocompatibility, and have been utilized in MRI-guided radiotherapy, photodynamic and photothermal therapy, etc. Τhe utilization of gadolinium bound to AuNPs may be a promising alternative that would reduce phenomena, such as toxicity, aggregation, etc., and could create a multimodal in vivo contrast and therapeutic agent. 

  • gold nanoparticles
  • gadolinium nanoparticles
  • cancer imaging
  • cancer therapy
  • nanomedicine

1. Applications in MRI

There are two ways to improve the resulting contrast of an MRI picture: (a) by enhancing the relaxivity of the contrast agent and (b) by increasing its concentration on-site [86][1]. The utilization of Gd chelates bound to gold nanoparticles is a promising alternative to existing agents in the MRI field as they cover both the aforementioned needs. The importance of chelating gadolinium to gold derives from the fact that Gd-based contrast agents have been associated with kidney malefaction, and free Gd cations stimulate an inflammatory response, resulting in scarring of the tissue [87][2].
The most commonly used method for binding Gd to a gold nanoparticle is the incorporation of a thiol moiety in the gadolinium chelate [86][1]. Cyclic disulfides, which form dithiolates on attachment to the surface [88][3], have also been applied as dithiocarbamates [89][4]. Dithiocarbamates have been shown to displace thiols on gold nanoparticle surfaces in a vigorous manner [90][5]. There are many chelators developed for connecting Gd to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), but the cyclic 10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) is preferred due to its kinetic inertness [91][6]. An increase in the relaxation rate of water protons in their distribution area leads to an enhanced contrast between healthy and pathological tissues [92][7].
Meade et al. reported the strong connection of 2375 gadolinium chelates on the surface of 17 nm AuNPs by the formation of a dithiolate attachment at the gold surface. This connection was also responsible for restricting the motion of the chelates, resulting in increased relaxivity [93][8]. Fatehbasharzad et al. synthesized PEGylated (polyethylene glycol) gold nanospheres–gadolinium NPs (PEG-Gd@SPhGNPs) and PEGylated gold nano concave cubes–gadolinium NPs (PEG-Gd@CCNPs). Their study concluded that irregularly shaped NPs affect the second of the three spheres’ contributions that, in paramagnetic systems, consist of the overall relaxivity of the system, according to the surface curvature. Additionally, they elongated the rotational correlation time of gadolinium. As a result, 13 times higher relaxivity than that of the currently used clinical contrast agents was observed. Of the two NPs, PEG-Gd@CCNPs had the highest relaxivity, making them a promising candidate for MRI contrast agent [94][9]. PEG is a widely used polymer that offers stability and biocompatibility to gold nanoparticles. In general, polymers added to the surface of nanoparticles prevent them from aggregating and camouflage them from the immune system, increasing their circulation time [86][1].
Chabloz et al. described the synthesis of an octadentate gadolinium unit based on DO3A with a dithiocarbamate tether, attached to the surface of AuNPs. The restricted rotation of the immobilized areas on the surface of the Gd complex led to a significant increase in relaxivity. This NP is an example of NPs created to deliver targeting imaging agents. The additional incorporation of surface units for biocompatibility (PEG and thioglucose units) and targeting units (folic acid) leads to little detrimental effect on the high relaxivity observed for these biocompatible materials [95][10]. Most importantly they appear to be capable of targeting the folate receptors overexpressed by cancer cells, such as HeLa cells, making them of increased significance and leading to an increased concentration of the contrast agent [95][10]. Aouidat et al. described a novel Gd–biopolymer–gold bimetallic NP system by complexing gadolinium to gold ions and infusing them in a biopolymer matrix. These Gd–gold NPs displayed hepatocytes in the liver as a result of their good cellular uptake. They also preserved T1 contrast inside the cells, providing a solid in vivo detection with T1 MRI [96][11].
Another simple tactic to enhance Gd concentration in a malignancy under examination is by exploiting the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect that allows the Gd-functionalized nanoparticles to be accumulated in the tumor as a result of the leaky vasculature of the site. Therefore, a better definition is achieved, without harming the surrounding healthy tissues [97][12].

2. Applications in Multimodal Imaging

Multimodal imaging agents have been developed to facilitate enhancement contrast in multiple modalities. The most important aspect of administering one multipurpose contrast agent is the avoidance of different biodistribution concerns [98][13]. Gadolinium–gold NP multimodal contrast agents have been applied for use in both MRI and CT, offering contrast enhancement [86][1].
For MRI/photoacoustic imaging, Xing et al. have synthesized a gold nanorod with surface-bound gadolinium chelated with an aspect ratio of 3:1. This NP was found to absorb light at 710 nm and a high relaxivity. An interesting fact was that the addition of a layer of 20 nm thick gadolinium oxysulfide (GOS) to gold nanorods with an aspect ratio of 2:2 improved the absorption wavelength of the nanorods to 818 nm [99][14]. Combining gadolinium ions to AuNPs coupled the fluorescent properties of the latter, generating multimodal contrast agents capable for use in MRI/fluorescence imaging [100][15]. For the case of MRI/single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), DOTA-based chelators were designed to encapsulate gadolinium ions on a gold nanoparticle platform. This technique can be expanded to include therapeutic radionuclides, offering a potential use in the field of theranostics [101][16].
Wenxiou Hou et al. established a method for synthesizing gold nanocluster gadolinium nanoparticles (GdNPs). In an aqueous solution, the gold nanoclusters were assembled into monodispersed spherical particles, and then electrostatic interactions between trivalent cations of gadolinium and negatively charged carboxyl groups on the GNCs were selectively induced, leading to the formation of NPs for use in tumor multimodal imaging. It is a simple and time-saving assembly procedure that allows the gadolinium ions to be chelated into the gold nanoparticles without using molecular Gd chelates. The GNC-GdNPs were studied for NIR/CT/MR imaging of A549 human non-small cell lung cancer cells in vitro, and showed great promise for future use in cancer diagnosis [102][17].
In the Benqing Zhoua et al. study, polyethylene glycol (PEG) monomethyl ether-modified PEI was sequentially modified with Gd chelator and folic acid (FA)-linked PEG (FA-PEG) and was used as a template to synthesize AuNPs followed by Gd chelation and acetylation of the remaining PEI surface amines (FA-Gd-Au PENPs) for use as a nanoprobe for targeted dual mode tumor CT/MR imaging in vivo. They were found to be colloidally stable and cytocompatible in a given concentration range with targeting specificity, as well as the enhanced X-ray attenuation property and reasonable R1 relaxivity making them an excellent candidate for targeted tumor CT/MR imaging in vivo [103][18].
To evaluate the outcome of DC-based immunotherapies, the in vivo tracking of dendritic cell (DC) migration to the lymphatic system is essential. Cai Zang et al. designed a bimodal imaging agent, namely Au@Prussian blue-Gd@ovalbumin nanoparticles (APG@OVA NPs), for real-time tracking of the DC migration process by MRI. Moreover, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) pointed to the distribution of the colonized DCs in the lymphatic system at the single-cell level. DC activation was achieved by the exposed ovalbumin molecules on the NP before subcutaneous injection, while the Gb doped PB shells provided a background-free SERS signal and MRI signal simultaneously, resulting in APG@OVA NPs which were suitable for real-time tracking of the DC migration by MRI and reliable distribution information about the DCs colonizing the lymph nodes with SERS [104][19].

3. Theranostic Agents

A theranostic agent provides the clinician with real-time information on the biodistribution of the drug within the body while delivering a treatment itself [86][1]. In photothermal therapy (PTT) gold nanostructures can be used as photothermal agents, as they are able to convert near-infrared radiation into heat energy due to their localized surface plasmon effect. Functionalizing the gold nanostructure with gadolinium chelates allows the formation of a theranostic agent for combined PTT and MRI [105][20]. Furthermore, silica-gold core–shell NPs have been synthesized with an orthopyridil disulfide linker to allow the attachment of gadolinium chelates to the gold surface. The GdNPs are able to absorb NIR at 800 nm and, because of the gadolinium, they can achieve a relaxivity of 37 mM·s−1 per Gd unit at 1.41 T for combined PTT and MRI [79][21]. In addition to this, gold nanostars have been used in vitro and preclinically as PTT agents [106][22]. The relaxivities of gadolinium chelates attached to nanostars are often far greater than those in equivalent nanosphere syntheses [86][1]. In the case of photodynamic therapy (PDT), photosensitizers have been attached to AuNPs to generate singlet oxygen, delivering cancer treatment [107][23]. In a notable study, a photosensitizer was attached to a gadolinium-functionalized gold nanoshell for combined MRI, CT, PTT, and PDT [108][24]. Referring to radiotherapy, use of gold nanomaterials has been made, since their electron-dense nature makes them strong absorbers of high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. Gold nanomaterials with gadolinium chelates allow scientists to assess the nanoparticle accumulation level by MRI prior to treatment, ensuring the maximum impact of the nanoparticles during radiotherapy [109][25].
Memona Khan et al. designed and formulated doxorubicin (DOX) gadolinium–gold complexes. Doxorubicin (DOX), an anticancer therapeutic agent, was loaded on bimetallic gold nanorods in which gold salt (HAuCl4) was chelated with anthracycline (DOX), diacid polyethylene glycol (PEG-COOH) and gadolinium salt (GdCl3 · 6 H2O). Two NPs were formed depending on the placement of DOX: DOX ON-Gd-AuNRs, with DOX conjugated onto the Gd-AuNRs, and DOX IN-Gd-AuNRs, with DOX placed inside the Gd-AuNRs. The results showed that PTT was achieved at 808 nm in the NIR transparency window, cytotoxicity was observed toward tumoral MIAPaCa-2 cells, and MRI T1 features at 7T enabled interesting positive contrast for bioimaging [110][26].
Muhammad Sani Usman et al. developed gadolinium-based theranostic nanoparticles as contrast agents for MRI and for the co-delivery of drugs. They used Zn/Al-layered double hydroxide as the nanocarrier platform, gallic acid (GA) as the therapeutic agent, and Gd(NO3)3 as the diagnostic agent, while AuNPs were grown on the system to form the Gd-based nanocomposite (GAGZAu). The in vitro drug release study presented higher drug release in pH 4.8 (the pH of cancer cells), indicating the capability of the platform to deliver the GA into cancer cells and prevent a bloodstream premature release. Reasonable cytotoxicity to HepG2 cancer cell lines and negligible toxicity to 3T3 normal cell lines was achieved. The NP also developed an improved MRI contrast in the T1-weighted image obtained as compared to pure Gd(NO3)3 and water [111][27].
The same team a year later published a new study about the synthesis of a bimodal theranostic nanodelivery system (BIT) based on graphene oxide, chlorogenic acid as the anticancer agent, and gadolinium–gold nanoparticles (GOGCA) as contrast agents for MRI. About 90% of the chlorogenic acid was released from GOGCA under acidic cancer pH, which suggests high delivery in the cancer location. The nanoparticle was observed to have increased the contrast of the T1-weighted image tested by MRI and, interestingly, showed a higher signal than the conventional MRI contrast agent (Gd(NO3)3), giving promising results for a holistic cancer medication in the future [112][28].
Lu Han et al. produced a protein-stabilized multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform, a gadolinium oxide–gold nanoclusters hybrid (Gd2O3-AuNCs), for multimodal imaging and drug delivery. The nanocomposites were water-dispersible, biocompatible, and were able to generate singlet oxygen species under NIR laser irradiation for photodynamic therapy. They were also able to present high loading capacity for the therapeutic agent indocyanine green (ICG). The NP demonstrated excellent triple-modal near-infrared fluorescence/magnetic resonance/computed topography (NIRF/MR/CT) imaging capability, as well a combined photodynamic and photothermal effectiveness [113][29].

4. Applications in Cancer Treatment

Roux et al. developed the Au@DTDTPA(Gd) nanoparticles, i.e., original ultra-small nanoparticles comprised of a gold core and dithiolated polyaminocarboxylate shell doped with gadolinium ions, and then demonstrated their relevance and their potential for MRI-guided radiation therapy. In particular, preclinical experiments demonstrated that Au@DTDTPA(Gd) could be of interest for the management of brain tumors [114][30].
Durand et al. study pointed out a noticeable decrease in glioma cell invasiveness when tumor cells were exposed to Au@DTDTPA(Gd) nanoparticles. Au@DTDTPA(Gd) nanoparticles affected the intrinsic biomechanical properties of U251 glioma cells, such as cell stiffness, adhesion, and generated traction forces, and significantly reduced the formation of protrusions, thus, exerting an inhibitory effect on their migration capacities. The results showed that the Au@DTDTPA(Gd) nanoparticles could have great interest for the therapeutic management of astrocytic tumors, not only as a radio-enhancing agent but also by reducing the invasive potential of glioma cells [115][31].
Bei Li et al. synthesized ultra-small gold nanoparticles induced with gadolinium ions forming a spherical self-assembly and coupled them with matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2); they were then loaded with the photosensitive drug IR820 (Gd–AuNPS@IR820) for photothermal/photodynamic combination therapy for liver cancer. Due to the presence of MMP-2, the nanoprobes showed excellent tumor-targeting properties in both T1 MRI and in vivo fluorescence imaging modes. In vivo treatment results fully prove that the nanoprobe has achieved satisfactory therapeutic effects after laser irradiation mediated photothermal/photodynamic combination treatment. The main organs of each treatment group did not show obvious pathological damage, proving that this nanoprobe has excellent in vivo biocompatibility [78][32].
The overview of the most recent applications in medical imaging and therapy of functionalized gold and gadolinium nanoparticles are depicted in Table 1.
Table 1.
Consolidation of gold and gadolinium nanoparticles for medical applications in imaging and therapeutics.
Nanoparticle Medical Application Research Team
PEGylated gold nanopheres–gadolinium NPs

(PEG-Gd@SPhGNPs)		 MRI contrast agent Fatehbasharzad et al.

[94][9]
PEGylated gold nano concave cubes–gadolinium NPs

(PEG-Gd@CCNPs)		 MRI contrast agent Fatehbasharzad et al.

[94][9]
Gadolinium–biopolymer–gold bimetallic NP system MRI contrast agent Aouidat et al.

[96][11]
Octadentate gadolinium unit based on DO3A with a dithiocarbamate tether, attached to the surface of gold NPs MRI contrast agent Chabloz et al.

[95][10]
Gold nanorod with surface-bound gadolinium chelates MRI/photoacoustic imaging agent Qin et al.

[99][14]
Gadolinium–gold nanocluster NPs NIR/CT/MR imaging agent for A549 human non-small cell lung cancer cell imaging in vitro Hou et al.

[102][17]
Gadolinium chelated gold NPs-acetylated PEI surface amines

(FA-Gd-Au PENPs)		 CT/MR imaging agent in vivo Zhou et al.

[103][18]
Gold–Prussian blue–gadolinium ovalbumin nanoparticles

(APG@OVA NPs)		 MRI/surface-enhanced Raman scattering agent Zhang et al.

[104][19]
Doxorubicin (DOX) gadolinium–gold complexes

(DOX ON-Gd-AuNRs)

(DOX IN-Gd-AuNRs)		 Photothermal therapy application/MRI agent Khan et al.

[110][26]
Double-layered Zn/Al-gallic acid (GA)–gadolinium (NO3)3–gold nanoparticles

(GAGZAu)		 Theranostic nanodelivery system (drug delivery system/MRI agent) Sani Usman et al.

[111,112][27][28]
Graphene oxide–chlorogenic acid–gadolinium–gold nanoparticles (GOGCA) Theranostic nanodelivery system (drug delivery system/MRI agent) Usman et al.

[112][28]
Gadolinium oxide–gold nanoclusters hybrid

(Gd2O3-AuNCs)		 Theranostic nanoplatform (PDT application/drug delivery system/NIRF/MR/CT imaging agent) Han et al.

[113][29]
Gold core dithiolated polyaminocarboxylate shell doped with gadolinium ions

(Au@DTDTPA(Gd))		 MRI agent for guided radiation therapy of brain tumors Debouttière et al.

[116][33]
Spherical self-assembly of gold NPs–gadolinium ions–metalloproteinase-2-IR820

(Gd–AuNPS@IR820)		 PDT/PTT application on liver cancer Li et al.

[78][32]

References

  1. Perry, H.L.; Botnar, R.M.; Wilton-Ely, J.D.E.T. Gold nanomaterials functionalised with gadolinium chelates and their application in multimodal imaging and therapy. Chem. Commun. 2020, 56, 4037–4046.
  2. Lancelot, E.; Desché, P. Gadolinium retention as a safety signal: Experience of a manufacturer. Investig. Radiol. 2020, 55, 20.
  3. Yaseen, M.; Humayun, M.; Khan, A.; Usman, M.; Ullah, H.; Tahir, A.A.; Ullah, H. Preparation, Functionalization, Modification, and Applications of Nanostructured Gold: A Critical Review. Energies 2021, 14, 1278.
  4. Sharma, J.; Chhabra, R.; Yan, H.; Liu, Y. A facile in situ generation of dithiocarbamate ligands for stable gold nanoparticle–oligonucleotide conjugates. Chem. Commun. 2008, 18, 2140–2142.
  5. Perry, H.L.; Yoon, I.-C.; Chabloz, N.G.; Molisso, S.; Stasiuk, G.J.; Botnar, R.; Wilton-Ely, J.D.E.T. Metallostar Assemblies Based on Dithiocarbamates for Use as MRI Contrast Agents. Inorg. Chem. 2020, 59, 10813–10823.
  6. Lohrke, J.; Frenzel, T.; Endrikat, J.; Alves, F.C.; Grist, T.M.; Law, M.; Lee, J.M.; Leiner, T.; Li, K.-C.; Nikolaou, K.; et al. 25 Years of Contrast-Enhanced MRI: Developments, Current Challenges and Future Perspectives. Adv. Ther. 2016, 33, 1–28.
  7. Wahsner, J.; Gale, E.M.; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, A.; Caravan, P. Chemistry of MRI Contrast Agents: Current Challenges and New Frontiers. Chem. Rev. 2018, 119, 957–1057.
  8. Holbrook, R.J.; Rammohan, N.; Rotz, M.W.; MacRenaris, K.W.; Preslar, A.T.; Meade, T.J. Gd(III)-Dithiolane Gold Nanoparticles for T1-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Pancreas. Nano Lett. 2016, 16, 3202–3209.
  9. Fatehbasharzad, P.; Stefania, R.; Carrera, C.; Hawala, I.; Castelli, D.D.; Baroni, S.; Colombo, M.; Prosperi, D.; Aime, S. Relaxometric studies of gd-chelate conjugated on the surface of differently shaped gold nanoparticles. Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 1115.
  10. Chabloz, N.G.; Wenzel, M.N.; Perry, H.L.; Yoon, I.; Molisso, S.; Stasiuk, G.J.; Elson, D.; Cass, A.E.G.; Wilton-Ely, J.D.E.T. Polyfunctionalised Nanoparticles Bearing Robust Gadolinium Surface Units for High Relaxivity Performance in MRI. Chem.—A Eur. J. 2019, 25, 10895–10906.
  11. Aouidat, F.; Boumati, S.; Khan, M.; Tielens, F.; Doan, B.T.; Spadavecchia, J. Design and synthesis of gold-gadolinium-core-shell nanoparticles as contrast agent: A smart way to future nanomaterials for nanomedicine applications. Int. J. Nanomed. 2019, 14, 9309.
  12. Samadian, H.; Hosseini-Nami, S.; Kamrava, S.K.; Ghaznavi, H.; Shakeri-Zadeh, A. Folate-conjugated gold nanoparticle as a new nanoplatform for targeted cancer therapy. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 2016, 142, 2217–2229.
  13. Lee, D.-E.; Koo, H.; Sun, I.-C.; Ryu, J.H.; Kim, K.; Kwon, I.C. Multifunctional nanoparticles for multimodal imaging and theragnosis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 2656–2672.
  14. Qin, H.; Zhou, T.; Yang, S.; Chen, Q.; Xing, D. Gadolinium(III)-gold nanorods for MRI and photoacoustic imaging dual-modality detection of macrophages in atherosclerotic inflammation. Nanomedicine 2013, 8, 1611–1624.
  15. Cherukula, K.; Manickavasagam Lekshmi, K.; Uthaman, S.; Cho, K.; Cho, C.-S.; Park, I.-K. Multifunctional Inorganic Nanoparticles: Recent Progress in Thermal Therapy and Imaging. Nanomaterials 2016, 6, 76.
  16. Degrauwe, N.; Hocquelet, A.; Digklia, A.; Schaefer, N.; Denys, A.; Duran, R. Theranostics in Interventional Oncology: Versatile Carriers for Diagnosis and Targeted Image-Guided Minimally Invasive Procedures. Front. Pharmacol. 2019, 10, 450.
  17. Hou, W.; Xia, F.; Alfranca, G.; Yan, H.; Zhi, X.; Liu, Y.; Peng, C.; Zhang, C.; de la Fuente, J.M.; Cui, D. Nanoparticles for multi-modality cancer diagnosis: Simple protocol for self-assembly of gold nanoclusters mediated by gadolinium ions. Biomaterials 2017, 120, 103–114.
  18. Zhou, B.; Xiong, Z.; Wang, P.; Peng, C.; Shen, M.; Mignani, S.; Majoral, J.-P.; Shi, X. Targeted tumor dual mode CT/MR imaging using multifunctional polyethylenimine-entrapped gold nanoparticles loaded with gadolinium. Drug Deliv. 2018, 25, 178–186.
  19. Zhang, C.; Xu, Z.; Di, H.; Zeng, E.; Jiang, Y.; Liu, D. Gadolinium-doped blue nanoparticles as MR/SERS bimodal agents for dendritic cell activating and tracking. Theranostics 2020, 10, 6061–6071.
  20. Pitchaimani, A.; Nguyen TD, T.; Maurmann, L.; Key, J.; Bossmann, S.H.; Aryal, S. Gd3+ tethered gold nanorods for combined magnetic resonance imaging and photo-thermal therapy. J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 2017, 13, 417–426.
  21. Coughlin, A.J.; Ananta, J.S.; Deng, N.; Larina, I.V.; Decuzzi, P.; West, J.L. Gadolinium-Conjugated Gold Nanoshells for Multimodal Diagnostic Imaging and Photothermal Cancer Therapy. Small 2014, 10, 556–565.
  22. Gao, Y.; Li, Y.; Chen, J.; Zhu, S.; Liu, X.; Zhou, L.; Shi, P.; Niu, D.; Gu, J.; Shi, J. Multifunctional gold nanostar-based nanocomposite: Synthesis and application for noninvasive MR-SERS imaging-guided photothermal ablation. Biomaterials 2015, 60, 31–41.
  23. Cheng, Y.; Meyers, J.D.; Broome, A.-M.; Kenney, M.E.; Basilion, J.P.; Burda, C. Deep Penetration of a PDT Drug into Tumors by Noncovalent Drug-Gold Nanoparticle Conjugates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 2583–2591.
  24. Liu, J.; Wang, D.; Wang, G. Magnetic-gold theranostic nanoagent used for targeting quad modalities T 1 & T 2-MRI/CT/PA imaging and photothermal therapy of tumours. RSC Adv. 2021, 11, 18440–18447.
  25. Caravan, P.; Esteban-Gómez, D.; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, A.; Platas-Iglesias, C. Water exchange in lanthanide complexes for MRI applications. Lessons learned over the last 25 years. Dalton Trans. 2019, 48, 11161–11180.
  26. Khan, M.; Boumati, S.; Arib, C.; Diallo, A.T.; Djaker, N.; Doan, B.-T.; Spadavecchia, J. Doxorubicin (DOX) Gadolinium–Gold-Complex: A New Way to Tune Hybrid Nanorods as Theranostic Agent. Int. J. Nanomed. 2021, 16, 2219–2236.
  27. Usman, M.S.; Hussein, M.Z.; Fakurazi, S.; Masarudin, M.J.; Saad, F.F.A. Gadolinium-doped gallic acid-zinc/aluminium-layered double hydroxide/gold theranostic nanoparticles for a bimodal magnetic resonance imaging and drug delivery system. Nanomaterials 2017, 7, 244.
  28. Usman, M.S.; Hussein, M.Z.; Fakurazi, S.; Masarudin, M.J.; Saad, F.F.A. A bimodal theranostic nanodelivery system based on nanoparticles. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0200760.
  29. Han, L.; Xia, J.-M.; Hai, X.; Shu, Y.; Chen, X.-W.; Wang, J.-H. Protein-Stabilized Gadolinium Oxide-Gold Nanoclusters Hybrid for Multimodal Imaging and Drug Delivery. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 6941–6949.
  30. Miladi, I.; Alric, C.; Dufort, S.; Mowat, P.; Dutour, A.; Mandon, C.; Laurent, G.; Bräuer-Krisch, E.; Herath, N.; Coll, J.-L.; et al. The In Vivo Radiosensitizing Effect of Gold Nanoparticles Based MRI Contrast Agents. Small 2014, 10, 1116–1124.
  31. Durand, M.; Lelievre, E.; Chateau, A.; Berquand, A.; Laurent, G.; Carl, P.; Roux, S.; Chazee, L.; Bazzi, R.; Eghiaian, F.; et al. The detrimental invasiveness of glioma cells controlled by gadolinium chelate-coated gold nanoparticles. Nanoscale 2021, 13, 9236–9251.
  32. Li, B.; Sun, L.; Li, T.; Zhang, Y.; Niu, X.; Xie, M.; You, Z. Ultra-small gold nanoparticles self-assembled by gadolinium ions for enhanced photothermal/photodynamic liver cancer therapy. J. Mater. Chem. B 2021, 9, 1138–1150.
  33. Debouttière, P.-J.; Roux, S.; Vocanson, F.; Billotey, C.; Beuf, O.; Favre-Reguillon, A.; Lin, Y.; Pellet-Rostaing, S.; Lamartine, R.; Perriat, P.; et al. Design of Gold Nanoparticles for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2006, 16, 2330–2339.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback