Modern Olive Planting Systems: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Karina Chen and Version 1 by Riccardo Lo Bianco.

The objective of fully mechanizing olive harvesting has been pursued since the 1970s to cope with labor shortages and increasing production costs. Only in the last twenty years, after adopting super-intensive planting systems and developing appropriate straddle machines, a solution seems to have been found. The spread of super-intensive plantings, however, raises serious environmental and social concerns, mainly because of the small number of cultivars that are currently used (basically 2), compared to over 100 cultivars today cultivated on a large scale across the world. Olive growing, indeed, insists on over 11 million hectares. Despite its being located mostly in the Mediterranean countries, the numerous olive growing districts are characterized by deep differences in climate and soil and in the frequency and nature of environmental stress. To date, the olive has coped with biotic and abiotic stress thanks to the great cultivar diversity. Pending that new technologies supporting plant breeding will provide a wider number of cultivars suitable for super-intensive systems, in the short term, new growing models must be developed. New olive orchards will need to exploit cultivars currently present in various olive-growing areas and favor increasing productions that are environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable. As in fruit growing, we should focus on “pedestrian olive orchards”, based on trees with small canopies and whose top can be easily reached by people from the ground and by machines (from the side of the top) that can carry out, in a targeted way, pesticide treatments, pruning and harvesting.

  • light interception
  • Olea europaea
  • pedestrian orchard
  • super-intensive planting system
  • training form
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Baldini, E. Arboricoltura Generale; Clueb: Bologna, Italy, 1979; pp. 11–18.
  2. Jackson, J.E.; Palmer, J.W. A computer model study of light interception by orchards in relation to mechanised harvesting and management. Sci. Hortic. 1980, 13, 1–7.
  3. Gucci, R.; Cantini, C. Potatura e Forme di Allevamento Dell’olivo; Edagricole: Milano, Italy, 2001; pp. 107–135.
  4. Mariscal, M.J.; Orgaz, F.; Villalobos, F.J. Radiation-use efficiency and dry matter partitioning of a young olive (Olea europaea) orchard. Tree Physiol. 2000, 20, 65–72.
  5. Jackson, J.E.; Palmer, J.W. Light distribution in discontinuous canopies: Calculation of leaf areas and canopy volumes above defined ‘irradiance contours’ for use in productivity modelling. Ann. Bot. 1981, 47, 561–565.
  6. Jackson, J.E.; Sharples, R.O. The influence of shade and within-tree position on apple fruit size, colour and storage quality. J. Hortic. Sci. 1971, 46, 277–287.
  7. Stutte, G.W.; Martin, G.C. Effects of light intensity and carbohydrate reserves on flowering in olive. J. Amer Soc. Hort. Sci. 1986, 111, 27–31.
  8. Pastor, M.; Humanes, J. Plantation density experiments of non-irrigated olive groves in Andalusia. Acta Hortic. 1990, 286, 287–290.
  9. Fontanazza, G. Olivicoltura Intensiva Meccanizzata; Edagricole: Milano, Italy, 2000.
  10. Tous, J.; Romer, A.; Plana, J.; Baiges, F. Planting density trial with ‘Arbequina’olive cultivar in Catalonia (Spain). Acta Hortic. 1999, 474, 177–180.
  11. León, L.; De la Rosa, R.; Guerrero, N.; Rallo, L.; Barranco, D.; Tous, J.; Romero, A.; Hermoso, J.F. Ensayos de variedades de olivo en plantación de alta densidad. Fruticultura profesional. Espec. Olivic. 2006, IV-160, 21–26.
  12. Diez, C.M.; Moral, J.; Cabello, D.; Morello, P.; Rallo, L.; Barranco, D. Cultivar and tree density as key factors in the long-term performance of super high-density olive orchards. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 1790.
  13. Diez, C.M.; Trujillo, I.; Martinez-Urdiroz, N.; Barranco, D.; Rallo, L.; Marfil, P.; Gaut, B.S. Olive domestication and diversification in the Mediterranean Basin. New Phytol. 2015, 206, 436–447.
  14. Pastor, M.; Humanes, J.; Vega, V.; Castro, A. Diseňo y Manejo de Plantaciones de Olivar. Monofrafiias; Consejeria de Agricultura y Pesca-Junta de Adalucia: Sevilla, Spain, 1998; pp. 57–77.
  15. Patumi, M.; d’Andria, R.; Fontanazza, G.; Morelli, G.; Giorio, P.; Sorrentino, G. Yield and oil quality of intensively trained trees of three cultivars of olive (Olea europaea L.) under different irrigation regimes. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 1999, 74, 729–737.
  16. Servili, M.; Sordini, B.; Esposto, S.; Urbani, S.; Veneziani, G.; Di Maio, I.; Selvaggini, R.; Taticchi, A. Biological Activities of Phenolic Compounds of Extra Virgin Olive Oil. Antioxidants 2014, 3, 1–23.
  17. Reale, L.; Nasini, L.; Cerri, M.; Regni, L.; Ferranti, F.; Proietti, P. The Influence of Light on Olive (Olea europaea L.) Fruit Development Is Cultivar Dependent. Front Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 385.
  18. Proietti, P.; Nasini, L.; Ilarioni, L.; Balduccini, A.M. Photosynthesis and vegetative-productive activities of the olive cultivars ‘Arbequina’, ‘Leccino’ and ‘Maurino’ in a very high density olive grove in central Italy. Acta Hortic. 2011, 924, 111–116.
  19. Viruega, J.R.; Roca, L.F.; Moral, J.; Trapero, A. Factors affecting infection and disease development on olive leaves inoculated with Fusicladium oleagineum. Plant Dis. 2011, 95, 1139–1146.
  20. Tombesi, A.; Cartechini, A. L’effetto dell’ombreggiamento della chioma sulla differenziazione delle gemme a fiore dell’olivo. Riv. Ortoflorofruttic. Ital. 1986, 70, 277–285.
  21. Gómez-del-Campo, M.; García, J.M. Canopy fruit location can affect olive oil quality in ‘Arbequina’ hedgerow orchards. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2012, 89, 123–133.
  22. Proietti, P.; Nasini, L.; Ilarioni, L. Photosynthetic behavior of Spanish Arbequina and Italian Maurino olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivars under super-intensive grove conditions. Photosynthetica 2012, 50, 239–246.
  23. Marra, F.P.; Camposeo, S.; Vivaldi, G.A.; Proietti, P.; Nasini, L.; Caruso, T.; Campisi, G. Growth and yields of ‘Arbequina ‘high-density planting systems in three different olive growing areas in Italy. Acta Hortic. 2014, 1057, 341–348.
  24. Ripa, V.; De Rose, F.; Caravita, M.A.; Parise, M.R.; Perri, E.; Rosati, A.; Giordani, E. Qualitative evaluation of olive oils from new olive selections and effects of genotype and environment on oil quality. Adv. Hortic. Sci. 2008, 22, 95–103.
  25. Connor, D.J.; Gómez-del-Campo, M. Simulation of oil productivity and quality of N–S oriented olive hedgerow orchards in response to structure and interception of radiation. Sci. Hortic. 2013, 150, 92–99.
  26. Cherbiy-Hoffmann, S.U.; Hall, A.J.; Rousseaux, M.C. Fruit, yield, and vegetative growth responses to photosynthetically active radiation during oil synthesis in olive trees. Sci. Hortic. 2013, 150, 110–116.
  27. Famiani, F.; Farinelli, D.; Gardi, T.; Rosati, A. The Cost of Flowering in Olive (Olea Europaea L.). Sci. Hortic. 2019, 252, 268–273.
  28. Rosati, A.; Paoletti, A.; Al Hariri, R.; Famiani, F. Fruit production and branching density affect shoot and whole-tree wood to leaf biomass ratio in olive. Tree Physiol. 2018, 38, 1278–1285.
  29. Rosati, A.; Paoletti, A.; Al Hariri, R.; Morelli, A.; Famiani, F. Resource investments in reproductive growth proportionately limit investments in whole-tree vegetative growth in young olive trees with varying crop loads. Tree Physiol. 2018, 38, 1267–1277.
  30. Bartolini, G.; Prevost, G.; Messeri, C.; Carignani, G. Olive Germplasm: Cultivars and Word-Wide Collections; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1998.
  31. Nardini, A.; Gasco, A.; Raimondo, F.; Gortan, E.; Lo Gullo, M.A.; Caruso, T.; Salleo, S. Is Rootstock-Induced Dwarfing in Olive an Effect of Reduced Plant Hydraulic Efficiency? Tree Physiol. 2006, 26, 1137–1144.
  32. Palliotti, A.; Famiani, F.; Proietti, P.; Boco, M.; Antognozzi, E.; Preziosi, P.; Ferradini, N.; Guelfi, P. Effects training system on tree growth, yield and oil characteristics in different olive cultivars. Acta Hortic. 1999, 474, 189–192.
  33. Pannelli, G.; Alfei, B. L’olivo a Vaso Policonico. In Terroir e Sostenibilità; Edagricole: Milano, Italy, 2019.
  34. Tous, J.; Romero, A.; Plana, J. “IRTA-i-18®”, a clone of the “Arbequina” olive variety. Olivae 1999, 77, 50–52.
  35. Palmer, J.W. The effect of row orientation, tree height, Time of year and latitude on light interception and distribution in model apple hedgerow canopies. J. Hortic. Sci. 1989, 64, 137–145.
  36. Dervis, S.; Mercado-Blanco, J.; Erten, L.; Valverde-Corredor, A.; Pérez-Artés, E. Verticillium wilt of olive in Turkey: A survey on disease importance, pathogen diversity and susceptibility of relevant olive cultivars. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2010, 127, 287–301.
  37. Lavee, S.; Avidan, B.; Meni, Y. “Askal”, una nueva variedad de almazara sobresaliente por su comportamiento agronómico para olivares intensivos y superintensivos. Olivae 2003, 97, 53–59.
  38. Rallo, L.; Barranco, D.; Castro-García, S.; Connor, D.J.; Gómez-del-Campo, M.; Rallo, P. High-density olive plantations. Hortic. Rev. 2013, 41, 303–384.
  39. Connor, D.J. Towards optimal designs for hedgerow olive orchards. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 2006, 57, 1067–1072.
  40. Godini, A.; Bellomo, F. Olivicoltura superintensiva in Puglia per la raccolta meccanica con vendemmiatrice. In Proceedings of the International Congress of Oliveculture, Spoleto, Italy, 21–23 April 2002; pp. 230–234.
  41. Proietti, P.; Tombesi, A.; Boco, M. Olive leaf photosynthesis in relation to leaf age and fruiting during the growing season. Italus Hortus 1995, 3, 17–21.
  42. Farinelli, D.; Tombesi, S. Performance and oil quality of ‘Arbequina’ and four Italian olive cultivars under super high density hedgerow planting system cultivated in central Italy. Sci. Hortic. 2015, 192, 97–107.
  43. Pastor, M.; Vega, V.; Hidalgo, J.C. Ensayos en plantaciones de olivar superintensivas e intensivas. Vida Rural 2005, 218, 30–34.
  44. Fernández, J.E.; Rodriguez-Dominguez, C.M.; Perez-Martin, A.; Zimmermann, U.; Rüger, S.; Martín-Palomo, M.J.; Diaz-Espejo, A. Online-monitoring of tree water stress in a hedgerow olive orchard using the leaf patch clamp pressure probe. Agric. Water Manag. 2011, 100, 25–35.
  45. Marino, G.; Macaluso, L.; Marra, F.P.; Ferguson, L.; Marchese, A.; Campisi, G.; Caruso, T. Horticultural performance of 23 Sicilian olive genotypes in hedgerow systems: Vegetative growth, productive potential and oil quality. Sci. Hortic. 2017, 217, 217–225.
  46. Martorana, A.; Di Miceli, C.; Alfonzo, A.; Settanni, L.; Gaglio, R.; Caruso, T. Effects of irrigation treatments on the quality of table olives produced with the Greek-style process. Ann. Microbiol. 2016, 67, 37–48.
  47. Giametta, G.; Zimbalatti, G. Mechanical Pruning in New Olive-Groves. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 1997, 68, 15–20.
  48. Zimbalatti, G.; Bernardi, B.; Castro-Garcías, S. Oliveti tradizionali, oltre gli scuotitori. Olivo Olio 2017, 3, 52–55.
  49. Bernardi, B.; Falcone, G.; Stillitano, T.; Benalia, S.; Strano, A.; Bacenetti, J.; De Luca, A.I. Harvesting system sustainability in Mediterranean olive cultivation. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 625, 1446–1458.
  50. Farinelli, D.; Ruffolo, M.; Boco, M.; Tombesi, A. Yield efficiency and mechanical harvesting with trunk shaker of some international olive cultivars. Acta Hortic. 2012, 949, 379–384.
  51. Sola-Guirado, R.R.; Bernardi, B.; Castro-García, S.; Brescia, A.; Zimbalatti, G. Assessment of aerial and underground vibration transmission in mechanically trunk shaken olive trees. J. Agric. Eng. 2018, 49, 191–197.
  52. Lavee, S. Integrated mechanical, chemical and horticultural methodologies for harvesting of oil olives and the potential interactions with different growing systems. A general review. Adv. Hortic. Sci. 2011, 24, 5–15.
  53. Proietti, S.; Sdringola, P.; Regni, L.; Evangelisti, N.; Brunori, A.; Ilarioni, L.; Nasini, L.; Proietti, P. Extra Virgin Olive oil as carbon negative product: Experimental analysis and validation of results. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 166, 550–562.
  54. Regni, L.; Nasini, L.; Ilarioni, L.; Brunori, A.; Massaccesi, L.; Agnelli, A.; Proietti, P. Long term amendment with fresh and composted solid olive mill waste on olive grove affects carbon sequestration by prunings, fruits, and soil. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 7, 2042.
  55. Regni, L.; Gigliotti, G.; Nasini, L.; Agrafioti, E.; Galanakis, C.M.; Proietti, P. Reuse of olive mill waste as soil amendment. In Olive Mill Waste: Recent Advances for Sustainable Management; Galanakis, C.M., Ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; Elsevier: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 97–116.
  56. Proietti, S.; Sdringola, P.; Desideri, U.; Zepparelli, F.; Brunori, A.; Ilarioni, L.; Nasini, L.; Regni, L.; Proietti, P. Carbon footprint of an olive tree grove. Appl. Energy 2014, 127, 115–124.
  57. Scaramuzzi, F. The landscape planning policy in Italy contrains olive growing competitiveness. In Olive Growing Systems, Olea, Rome FAO Olive Network; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2007; pp. 14–17.
  58. Vieri, M.; Sarri, D. Criteria for introducing mechanical harvesting of oil olives: Results of a five-year project in Central Italy. Adv. Hortic. Sci. 2010, 24, 78–90.
  59. Pannelli, G. Cultivation models for olive groves and mechanisation of harvesting: Technical and economic considerations. Adv. Hortic. Sci. 2010, 24, 21–28.
  60. Proietti, P. Changes in photosynthesis and fruit characteristics in olive in response to assimilate availability. Photosynthetica 2003, 41, 559–564.
  61. Ferguson, L. Trends in olive fruit handling previous to its industrial transformation. Grasas Aceites 2006, 57, 9–15.
  62. Fridley, R.B.; Hartmann, H.T.; Melschau, J.J.; Chen, P.; Whisler, J. Olive Harvest Mechanization in California; University of California: Berkeley, CA, USA, 1971; Volume 855.
  63. Lodolini, E.M.; Polverigiani, S.; Grossetti, D.; Neri, D. Pruning Management in a High-Density Olive Orchard. Acta Hortic. 2018, 1199, 385–390.
  64. Famiani, F.; Proietti, P.; Inglese, P. Progettazione e impianto dell’oliveto. In Collana Divulgativa dell’Accademia Volume VI; Accademia Nazionale dell’Olivo e dell’ Olio: Spoleto, Italy, 2011.
  65. Pannelli, G.; Gucci, R. La gestione della chioma. In Collana Divulgativa Dell’Accademia Volume V; Accademia Nazionale dell’ Olivo e dell’ Olio: Spoleto, Italy, 2011.
  66. Anifantis, A.S.; Camposeo, S.; Vivaldi, G.A.; Santoro, F.; Pascuzzi, S. Comparison of UAV Photogrammetry and 3D Modeling Techniques with Other Currently Used Methods for Estimation of the Tree Row Volume of a Super-High-Density Olive Orchard. Agriculture 2019, 9, 233.
  67. Tous, J.; Romero, A.; Hermoso, J.F.; Msallem, M.; Larbi, A. Olive orchard design and mechanization: Present and future. Acta Hortic. 2014, 1057, 231–246.
  68. Camposeo, S.; Vivaldi, G.A. Yield, Harvesting Efficiency and Oil Chemical Quality of Cultivars ‘Arbequina’ and ‘Arbosana’ Harvested by Straddle Machine in Two Apulian Growing Areas. Acta Hortic. 2018, 1199, 397–402.
  69. Lodolini, E.M.; Polverigiani, S.; Cioccolanti, T.; Santinelli, A.; Neri, D. Preliminary Results about the Influence of Pruning Time and Intensity on Vegetative Growth and Fruit Yield of a Semi-Intensive Olive Orchard. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 2019, 21, 969–980.
  70. Larbi, A.; Vázquez, S.; El-Jendoubi, H.; Msallem, M.; Abadía, J.; Abadía, A.; Morales, F. Canopy light heterogeneity drives leaf anatomical, eco-physiological, and photosynthetic changes in olive trees grown in a high-density plantation. Photosyn. Res. 2015, 123, 141–155.
  71. Rosati, A.; Paoletti, A.; Caporali, S.; Perri, E. The role of tree architecture in super high density olive orchards. Sci. Hortic. 2013, 161, 24–29.
  72. Cuevas, M.V.; Martín-Palomo, M.J.; Diaz-Espejo, A.; Torres-Ruiz, J.M.; Rodriguez-Dominguez, C.M.; Perez-Martin, A.; Pino-Mejías, R.; Fernández, J.E. Assessing water stress in a hedgerow olive orchard from sap flow and trunk diameter measurements. Irrig. Sci. 2013, 31, 729–746.
  73. Vivaldi, G.A.; Strippoli, G.; Camposeo, S. Ecophysiological response to irrigation of two olive cultivars grown in a high-density orchard. Agric. Sci. 2013, 4, 16–20.
  74. Russo, G.; Vivaldi, G.A.; De Gennaro, B.; Camposeo, S. Environmental sustainability of different soil management techniques in a high-density olive orchard. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 16, 498–508.
  75. Marino, G.; Macaluso, L.; Grilo, F.; Marra, F.P.; Caruso, T. Toward the valorization of olive (Olea europaea var. europaea L.) biodiversity: Horticultural performance of seven Sicilian cultivars in a hedgerow planting system. Sci. Hortic. 2019, 256, 108583.
  76. Tous, J.; Romero, A.; Hermoso, J.; Ninot, A. Mediterranean clonal selections evaluated for modern hedgerow olive oil production in Spain. Calif. Agr. 2011, 65, 34–40.
  77. De la Rosa, R.; Kiran, A.I.; Barranco, D.; León, L. Seedling vigour as a preselection criterion for short juvenile period in olive breeding. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 2006, 57, 477–481.
  78. Camposeo, S.; Godini, A. Preliminary observations about the performance of 13 varieties according to the super high density olive culture training system in Apulia (southern Italy). Adv. Hortic. Sci. 2011, 24, 16–20.
  79. Larbi, A.; Ayadi, M.; Ben Mabrouk, M.; Kharroubi, M.; Kammoun, N.; Msallem, M. Agronomic and oil characteristics of some olive varieties cultivated under high-density planting conditions. In Proceedings of the Vol. II of Olivebioteq 2006—Second International Seminar-Biotecnology and Quality of Tree Products around the Mediterranean Basin, Marsala-Mazara Del Vallo, Italy, 5–10 November 2006; pp. 135–138.
  80. Rallo, L.; Barranco, D.; De la Rosa, R.; León, L. New Olive Cultivars and Selections in Spain: Results after 25 Years of Breeding. Acta Hortic. 2018, 1199, 21–26.
  81. Moutier, N.; Ricard, J.M.; Le Verge, S. Vigour control of the olive tree in a high-density planting system: Two experimental approaches. Acta Hortic. 2011, 324, 185–294.
  82. Lodolini, E.M.; Polverigiani, S.; Sirugo, M.; Neri, D. Damage to Several Olive Cultivars by Two over-the-Row Harvesters in High-Density Orchards. Acta Hortic. 2018, 1199, 415–420.
  83. Tombesi, A.; Famiani, F.; Proietti, P.; Guelfi, P. Manual, integrated and mechanical olive harvesting: Efficiency and effects on trees and oil quality, Ezzaitouna. Rev. Sci. l’Oléiculture l’Oléotechnie 1996, 2, 93–101.
  84. Tombesi, A. Planting systems, canopy management and mechanical harvesting. In Proceedings of the Olivebioteq 2006—Second International Seminar—Recent Advances in Olive Industry—Special seminars and invited lectures, Marsala-Mazara Del Vallo, Italy, 5–10 November 2006; pp. 307–316.
  85. Pastor, M.; García-Vila, M.; Soriano, M.A.; Vega, V.; Fareres, E. Productivity of olive orchards in response to tree density. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 2007, 82, 555–562.
  86. Connor, D.J.; Gómez-del Campo, M.; Comas, J. Yield characteristics of N-S oriented olive hedgerow orchards, cv. Arbequina. Sci. Hortic. 2012, 133, 31–36.
  87. Trentacoste, E.R.; Connor, D.J.; Gomez del Campo, M. Effect of olive hedgerow orientation on vegetative growth, fruit characteristics and productivity. Sci. Hortic. 2015, 192, 60–69.
  88. Breviglieri, N. La nuova olivicoltura specializzata intensiva. Ital. Agric. 1961, 3.
More