Dietary zeaxanthin occurrence and bioaccessibility: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Catherine Yang and Version 1 by Adela Pintea.

This paperntry provides a comprehensive and exhaustive overview of natural food sources of zeaxanthin and their respective zeaxanthin bioaccessibility, while also placing emphasis on the importance of this oxygenated carotenoid in human health. The content of zeaxanthin in foods of different origin (plant-, animal- and microalgal-based food sources) has been reviewed and the in vitro accessibility results obtained by various research groups through the standardized INFOGEST protocol were compared among the different zeaxanthin food sources.

  • zeaxanthin
  • bioaccessibility
  • INFOGEST
  • ocular health
  • age-related macular degeneration

1. Introduction

Among the 1195 identified natural carotenoids [1], only lutein (β,ε-Carotene-3,3′-diol) and zeaxanthin (β,β-Carotene-3,3′-diol) have the ability to pass the blood–retina barrier and to accumulate in the macula lutea of the human eye. Here, the two dihydroxycarotenoids together with meso-zeaxanthin (a metabolite of lutein) exert their protection by filtrating high energy blue light and by limiting the oxidative stress, thus acting as powerful antioxidants [2].

Being lipophilic pigments, lutein and zeaxanthin follow the same absorption pathway as dietary lipids. After their release from the food matrix, the oxygenated carotenoids need to be solubilized into lipid emulsion particles in the stomach, incorporated into mixed micelles stabilized by the biliary salts in the duodenum before being taken up by the small intestinal cells and packaged in chylomicrons for secretion into the lymphatic system [3]. Despite the relatively low blood level of lutein (0.1–1.44 μmol/L in USA; 0.26–0.70 μmol/L in Europe) and especially of zeaxanthin (0.07–0.17 μmol/L in USA; 0.05–0.13 μmol/L in Europe), human retina accumulates high amounts of carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin and meso-zeaxanthin) in the macula, reaching as much as 1 mM [4][5][6].

The deposition form of carotenoids in plant and animal-based foods (solid-crystalline aggregates, lipid-dissolved forms or liquid-crystalline forms) exerts a strong influence on their liberation from the food matrix and consequently on their bioavailability [7]. Zeaxanthin, present (mainly as zeaxanthin dipalmitate) in liquid-crystalline form in the tubular chromoplasts of goji berries, showed an enhanced liberation and bioaccessibility compared to lutein, which is stored as protein-complexes in the thylakoids of chloroplasts [8]. Alongside the arduous liberation from foods, other factors such as the presence of co-ingested fat [9], fiber [10] or the processing level of the investigated food sample [11][12] can have a significant impact on carotenoid bioaccessibility.

Given the fact that a high amount of zeaxanthin in the micellar phase is associated with a potentially high absorption by the intestinal cells and transportation into plasma, data on the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin from different food sources is a prerequisite for determining its bioavailability [13].

2. Dietary Sources of Zeaxanthin

As seen in Table 1, the overall occurrence of zeaxanthin in natural food products is low. The broad majority of xanthophyll-rich foods contain more lutein than zeaxanthin. Moreover, many of the zeaxanthin-containing products listed in Table 1 are not commercially available around the world. Consequently, the most predominant sources of zeaxanthin present in the human diet are corn-based foods along with pepper and egg yolk [14].

Table 1.

Dietary sources of zeaxanthin (μg/g dry weight

a

or μg/g fresh weight

b

).

Plant  sources

Zeaxanthin

Ref.

Einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum)

0.94a

[15]

Khorasan wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. turanicum)

0.71a

[15]

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum)

0.49a

[15]

Corn (Zea mays L.)

10.31a

[15]

Corn flakes

1.02 - 2.97a

[16]

Corn chips

1.05a

[17]

Corn tortilla

0.93a

[17]

Corn masa

1.13a

[17]

Corn flour

9.4a

[18]

Boiled corn

3.7a

[18]

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

7.7a

[18]

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)

0.3a

[18]

Squash (Cucurbita maxima)

1.9a

[18]

Kidney been (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

0.1a

[18]

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)

0.1a

[18]

Beet (Beta vulgaris L.)

0.7a

[18]

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

1.3a

[18]

Hot chili peppers (Capsicum frutescens L.)

1230a*

[19]

Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

 

 

red

55.0 - 97.0a

[20]

green

1.7 - 5.7a

[20]

orange

62.0a

[18]

yellow

4.4a

[18]

India mustard (Brassica juncea)

0.8a

[18]

Watercress (Nasturtoum officinale)

0.4a

[18]

Endive (Cichorium endivia L.)

0.5a

[18]

Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolia)

0.7a

[18]

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

0.1a

[18]

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.)

0.1a

[18]

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)

0.7a

[18]

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. sabellica)

163 - 2460a

[21]

Zucchini blossoms (Cucurbita pepo L.)

32.7b*

[22]

Artichoke heart (Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus)

0.18b

[14]

Avocado (Persea americana)

0.08 - 0.18b

[23]

Apple (Malus domestica)

 

 

flesh

nd - 0.04a

[24]

peel

nd - 0.52a

[24]

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.)

nd - 0.39b

[25]

European plum (Prunus domestica L.)

0.1a

[18]

Nectarine (Prunus persica)

0.2a

[18]

Orange (Citrus sinensis)

0.3a

[18]

Orange juice(Citrus sinensis)

0.1a

[18]

Grafted orange (Citrus sinensis)

1.1a

[18]

Grafted orange (juice)

0.6a

[18]

Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)

2.1a

[18]

Mandarin juice (Citrus reticulata)

1.7a

[18]

Red grapefruit (Citrus paradisi)

0.2a

[18]

Peruvian groundcherry (Physalis peruviana L.)

0.4a

[18]

Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) fruits

0.7 - 2.0a

[26]

Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.)

0.14 - 0.49a

[27]

Rose hip (Rosa spp.)

23 - 107a*

[28]

Wolfberry (goji berry) (Lycium barbarum L.)

1231.1a*

[29]

Red Chinese lantern fruit (Physalis alkekengi L.)

847 - 1035a*

[30]

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.)

 

 

berries

193 - 424a*

[31]

oil (cold-pressed)

2312.2b*

[32]

Murici fruit (Byrsonima crassifolia)

5.4a*

[33]

Arazá fruit (Eugenia stipitata)

 

 

peel

1.14b

[34]

pulp

0.17b

[34]

Astringent persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb. var. Rojo brillante)

10.2b*

[35]

Cashew apples (Anacardium occidentale L.)

 

 

peel

0.51 - 2.69b*

[36]

pulp

0.04 - 0.58b*

[36]

Corozo (Aiphanes aculeata)

79.2a

[18]

South American sapote (Quararibea cordata)

46.2a

[18]

Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)

0.2a

[18]

Mango (Mangifera indica)

0.5a

[18]

Red papaya (Carica papaya)

0.6a

[18]

Yellow guava (Psidium guajava L.)

0.2a

[18]

Pineapple (Ananas comosus)

0.1a

[18]

Melon (Cucumis melo L.)

0.1a

[18]

Tahitian apple (Spondias dulcis)

0.1a

[18]

Cassabanana (Sicana odorífera)

0.4a

[18]

Tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea)

1.7a

[18]

Red tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea)

2.4a

[18]

Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.)

0.8a

[18]

Membrillo# (Gustavia superba)

37.6a

[18]

Canistel# (Pouteria campechiana)

19.7a

[18]

Chinese passion fruit# (Cionosicyos macranthus)

2.8a

[18]

Sastra# (Garcinia intermedia)

84.7a

[18]

Yellow mombin# (Spondias mombin L.)

1.2a

[18]

Guanabana toreta# (Annona purpurea)

6.8a

[18]

Purple mombin# (Spondias purpurea L.)

0.8a

[18]

Chinese rose# (Pereskia bleo)

0.8a

[18]

Nance# (Byrsonima crassiflora)

0.2a

[18]

Lucuma fruit (Pouteria lucuma)

 

 

Molina variety

3.44 - 5.76b*

[37]

Beltran variety

5.74 - 6.66b*

[37]

Sarsaparilla (Smilax aspera L.) berries

8.56b*

[38]

Animal sources

 

 

Butter

nd - 0.02b

[39]

Marine crab (Charybdis cruciata)

 

 

meat

0.02b

[40]

Freshwater crab (Potamon potamon)

 

 

meat

1.72b

[40]

Eggs

 

 

raw

1.5a

[41]

boiled

1.3a

[41]

poached

1.3a

[41]

omelette

1.14a

[41]

Microalgal sources

 

 

Nannochloropsis sp.

 

 

suspension

420a

[42]

oil

1930b

[42]

Chlorella ellipsoidea

1999a

[43]

Dunaliella salina

11270a

[44]

Phaeodactylum tricornutum

679.2a

[45]

Scenedesmus almeriensis

370a

[46]

In what concerns the origin of the zeaxanthin-containing foods, plant-based foods are unequivocally the most investigated foods, as they are also more abundant in nature. In vegetables, zeaxanthin is present in its free form, while in ripped fruits it usually occurs in a more stable and less soluble form, i.e., esterified with various fatty acids [47][48]. After the ingestion of these zeaxanthin-rich fruits, the mono- or di-esters need to be enzymatically hydrolyzed into their free form in the gastrointestinal tract before absorption by the intestinal cells [49]. Some fruits with distinguished zeaxanthin content such as goji (Lycium barbarum L.) berries and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) berries have been studied in terms of zeaxanthin content and bioaccessibility [8][29][31][32] but a large number of exotic fruits with a high content of zeaxanthin still remain uninvestigated.

Animal-based food sources of zeaxanthin are limited and fully dependent on the animal’s diet. For instance, by supplementing the feed of laying hens, the content of both lutein and zeaxanthin in egg yolk can be enhanced [50][51][52]. Due to the high-lipid matrix, xanthophylls from egg yolk, present in a lipid-dissolved form, are more bioavailable than from plant-based sources [53].

Apart from plant and animal food sources, the dried edible biomass of microalgae constitutes a potential rich source of zeaxanthin. Several microalgae such as Dunaliella sp. and Chlorella sp. can accumulate impressive amounts of zeaxanthin (Table 1). Considering the steady increase in the human population and Earth’s limited resources, microalgae could be regarded as reliable sources of zeaxanthin and other beneficial byproducts in the near future.

3. Zeaxanthin Bioaccessibility

Following the publication of the INFOGEST® harmonized simulated digestion method [54], various research groups investigated carotenoid bioaccessibility from different food sources, some of them containing zeaxanthin. Table 2 summarizes the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin from dietary sources obtained through the above-mentioned protocol. It should pointed out that even though the bioaccessibility was obtained using the same simulated digestion technique, each study was amended with consideration to the particularities of the tested food samples (as can be seen in the observations section), having carotenoid bioaccessibility as their common research purpose.

The release from the food matrix (also known as liberation) represents one of the many factors that affect carotenoid bioaccessibility, and consequently their bioavailability. Thermal processing promotes the release of zeaxanthin [55], as well as its solubilization into the aqueous environment of the stomach. The use of energy-saving high-pressure homogenization on raw mandarin juice exhibited an approximately ten-fold increase in zeaxanthin bioaccessibility as opposed to traditional pasteurization methods [56]. Similar results were observed in the case of orange juice, with a five-fold increase in zeaxanthin bioaccessibility [57].

Zeaxanthin-containing foods co-ingested with a source of fat stand a higher chance of solubilization and incorporation into mixed micelles [58]. It is for this reason that, for example, the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin from sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) [32] is significantly higher than that from Pouteria lucuma fruits [37] (Table 2). The food matrix in which zeaxanthin is delivered to the gastrointestinal tract is of paramount importance. Indeed, oil and other food products that contain a high amount of lipids have a superior zeaxanthin bioaccessibility compared to fruits in which the xanthophyll deposition restrains its release. Including dietary fat in the simulated digestion along with the investigated food sample has been shown to enhance the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin among other carotenoids. By way of example, the addition of coconut oil (1%) in the in vitro digestion of goji berries boosted zeaxanthin bioaccessibility from 6.7% to 13.3% [8]. In the same perspective, fruits that have a natural high content of lipids such as the fruit of murici (Byrsonima crassifolia) have a higher zeaxanthin bioaccessibility [33].

Corn (Zea mays L.), food source from which the name zeaxanthin is derived, is considered one of the best dietary contributors of this xanthophyll. However, in recent a study focusing on the in vitro digestion of corn-based products, the bioaccessibility of lutein from boiled kernels and porridge was similar to that of zeaxanthin and even higher in the case of tortilla (22.4% versus 18.5%) [59]. This is an important aspect considering that the content of lutein in tortilla was 6.5-fold higher than zeaxanthin and more than 7-fold higher in boiled kernels and porridge, thus making corn a more powerful source of lutein than zeaxanthin.

The superior bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin from egg yolk is widely acknowledged [60]. Nevertheless, the contribution of egg yolk to the dietary intake of zeaxanthin is rather low. Considering that the zeaxanthin content in a boiled egg yolk with an average weight of 17 g is 11.8 μg/g with 90% bioaccessibility [60], the actual zeaxanthin absorption after the ingestion of a single boiled egg yolk would be 180.54 μg. In order to cover the 2 mg of zeaxanthin needed for a significant reduction in the progression of age-related macular degeneration [61], the ingestion of 11 egg yolks would be required. An alternative approach for the enhancement of dietary zeaxanthin would be to consume food sources containing a high content of zeaxanthin with a moderate to high bioaccessibility rather than highly bioaccessible food products with low zeaxanthin content.

Investigation on zeaxanthin bioaccessibility from processed beverages is also worthwhile seeing that most of them are commercially available and ready for consumption. In a broad study including twenty-two commercial milk-fruit beverages the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin was found in the range of approximately 10% to 90%, with a mean percentage of 45.3% [62]. This wide range can be explained by the vastly different characteristics of each beverage comprising various types of fruits. A range of 7.4%–15.2% was observed for zeaxanthin bioaccessibility from different homemade cajá frozen pulp based beverages depending on the presence of other ingredients such as sugar and fat in the matrix [63]. In this case, the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin increased in accordance with the presence and the amount of both sugar and fat.

Limited data is available on the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin from microalgal sources. These microorganisms can produce strikingly high amounts of natural high-value byproducts such as zeaxanthin and the evaluation of their bioaccessibility after human ingestion represents an interesting yet uninvestigated area of research. In addition to cell disruption, systems such as oil-in-water emulsions prepared from the extracted microalgal oil can provide an increased zeaxanthin bioaccessibility [42].

Table 2. Recent research (last 5 years) with regard to zeaxanthin bioaccessibility (%) from different food sources assessed through the internationally recognized in vitro digestion method [54].

 

Food Matrix

Bioaccessibility (%)

Ref.

Observations

 

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.)

 

[32]

The oral phase was not considered and porcine cholesterol esterase was included in the protocol.

 

oil

61.5

 

oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion

64.6

Plant sources

Goji berries (Lycium barbarum L.)

13.3

[8]

The tested food sample (dried goji berries) was supplemented with 1% (w/w) coconut fat.

Astringent persimmon

(

Diospyros kaki Thunb, var. Rojo Brillante)

2.5

[35]

The persimmon samples were subjected to a high hydrostatic pressure treatment and the protocol was slightly amended as concerns the simulated digestion fluids.

Cajá (Spondias mombin L.) water and milk based beverages

7.4–15.2

[63]

Six homemade cajá frozen pulp based beverages were analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol.

Ortanique mandarin juices (Citrus reticulata x Citrus sinensis)

 8.8–82

[56]

Five mandarin juices subjected to traditional pasteurization and energy-saving high-pressure homogenization treatments were analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol in which the oral phase was not considered.

Orange juice (Citrus sinensis L. Osb.)

16–79

[57]

Five orange juices subjected to traditional pasteurization, energy-saving high-pressure homogenization and a combined centrifugation and homogenization technique were analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol in which the oral phase was not considered.

Commercial milk-fruit juice beverages

45.3

[62]

Twenty-two commercial milk-fruit juice beverages were analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol. The oral phase was not considered and the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin was expressed as mean percentage of the twenty-two commercial beverages investigated.

Pouteria lucuma fruits

 

[37]

Two varieties of seedless lucuma fruit pulps were analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol.

variety “Molina”

5.8

variety “Beltran”

1.6

Murici (Byrsonima crassifolia) fruit

22

[33]

The freeze-dried murici fruit were rehydrated and analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol along with other reported in vitro digestion methods.

Maize (Zea mays L.)

 

[59]

After their preparation from maize, boiled kernels, porridge and tortilla were analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol. In the case of porridge, the oral phase was not included.

boiled kernels

2.4

porridge

7.8

tortilla

18.4

Animal sources

Egg yolk

(hard boiled)

90

[60]

The yolk of hard-boiled commercial eggs was analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol along with another in vitro digestion method.

Egg yolk

 

[41]

The protocol was amended so as to simulate the digestion conditions of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency patients. 

boiled

26–98

poached

28–103

omelette

31–111

Microalgal sources

Nannochloropsis sp.

 

[42]

Nannochloropsis sp. (untreated biomass, high pressure homogenized biomass and oil-in-water emulsion) was analyzed through the slightly adjusted protocol. The oral phase was not considered and the results are expressed in terms of micellar incorporation (%).

Untreated suspension

9

HPH suspension

19

o/w emulsion

54

4. Zeaxanthin and Health Related Benefits



Due to its accumulation in the human retina, zeaxanthin is known primarily as one of the three macular pigments. Zeaxanthin and meso-zeaxanthin are predominantly distributed near the fovea, whereas lutein is more concentrated in the peripheral retina [4][64]. In recent decades, lutein and zeaxanthin have been associated with a reduced risk of developing several ocular diseases such as age-related macular degeneration and cataract [65][66].

Based on their preferential accumulation in the human brain and the acknowledged correlation between macular pigment optical density (MPOD) and brain carotenoids, lutein and combinations of lutein and zeaxanthin have been investigated for their contribution in cognitive function. Zeaxanthin concentration in the brain tissue of centenarians decedents was significantly correlated with premortem memory retention, verbal fluency and dementia [67]. In addition to a significant increase in MPOD, several cognitive parameters such as complex attention and cognitive flexibility were improved in both older women and men (mean age 72.51 years) after twelve months supplementation with 10 mg of lutein and 2 mg of zeaxanthin, with the composite memory being improved only in men [68].

Lutein and zeaxanthin were among the major carotenoids found in the infant brain and the detection of higher concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin in almost all the brains of term infants as opposed to preterm infants may indicate an important role in cognition [69].

Henriksen et al. [70] found a correlation between zeaxanthin concentration in serum and MPOD in healthy term infants, as well as a correlation between the mother’s zeaxanthin concentration in serum and infant MPOD. These results indicated that maternal zeaxanthin has a more relevant role in macular pigment deposition in utero than lutein.

5. Conclusions

As age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the leading causes of blindness, seeking bioaccessible natural sources of macular xanthophylls represents the way forward in preventing and delaying the progression of this medical condition. The presence of lutein and zeaxanthin in the infant brain further indicates an important role of these dihydroxycarotenoids in cognitive function, also confirmed by the lower concentrations found in elderly with mild cognitive impairment.

Along with some zeaxanthin-rich exotic fruits, the edible biomass of microalgae emerges as a promising zeaxanthin source and deserves further investigation.

This brief overview of potentially bioaccessible food sources of zeaxanthin provides a valuable support not only for the industry in the development of functional foods designed so as to enhance the intake of this oxygenated carotenoid, but also for nutritionists and end-consumers in the wise selection of dietary sources with an elevated zeaxanthin absorption.

References

  1. Junko Yabuzaki; Carotenoids Database: structures, chemical fingerprints and distribution among organisms. Database 2017, 2017, 1-11, 10.1093/database/bax004.
  2. Norman I. Krinsky; Elizabeth J. Johnson; Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 2005, 26, 459-516, 10.1016/j.mam.2005.10.001.
  3. Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya. Food Carotenoids: Chemistry, Biology and Technology; IFT Press: Wiley Blackwell, 2016; pp. 225-254.
  4. Richard A. Bone; John T Landrum; Zisca Dixon; Yin Chen; Cristina M Llerena; Lutein and Zeaxanthin in the Eyes, Serum and Diet of Human Subjects. Experimental Eye Research 2000, 71, 239-245, 10.1006/exer.2000.0870.
  5. Lisa M. Renzi-Hammond; Billy R. Hammond; Melissa Dengler; Richard Roberts; The relation between serum lipids and lutein and zeaxanthin in the serum and retina: results from cross-sectional, case-control and case study designs. Lipids in Health and Disease 2012, 11, 33-33, 10.1186/1476-511x-11-33.
  6. Wael K Al-Delaimy; Anne Linda Van Kappel; Pietro Ferrari; Nadia Slimani; Jean-Paul Steghens; Sheila Bingham; Ingegerd Johansson; Peter Wallström; Kim Overvad; Anne Tjønneland; et al.Timothy J. KeyAilsa A WelchH Bas Bueno-De-MesquitaPetra H M PeetersHeiner BoeingJakob LinseisenFrançloise Clavel-ChapelonCatherine GuiboutFernando Navarro-MateuJosé Ramón QuirósDomenico PalliEgidio CelentanoAntonia TrichopoulouVassiliki BenetouRudolf KaaksElio Riboli Plasma levels of six carotenoids in nine European countries: report from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Public Health Nutrition 2004, 7, 713-722, 10.1079/phn2004598.
  7. Ralf Schweiggert; R. Carle; Carotenoid Deposition in Plant And Animal Foods and Its Impact on Bioavailability. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 2015, 57, 1807-1830, 10.1080/10408398.2015.1012756.
  8. Judith Hempel; Christopher N. Schädle; Jasmin Sprenger; Annerose Heller; Reinhold Carle; Ralf Schweiggert; Ultrastructural deposition forms and bioaccessibility of carotenoids and carotenoid esters from goji berries (Lycium barbarum L.). Food Chemistry 2017, 218, 525-533, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.065.
  9. Lien Lemmens; Ines Colle; Sandy Van Buggenhout; Paola Palmero; Ann Van Loey; Marc Hendrickx; Carotenoid bioaccessibility in fruit- and vegetable-based food products as affected by product (micro)structural characteristics and the presence of lipids: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology 2014, 38, 125-135, 10.1016/j.tifs.2014.05.005.
  10. Hugo Palafox‐Carlos; J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala; Gustavo A. González-Aguilar; The Role of Dietary Fiber in the Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Fruit and Vegetable Antioxidants. Journal of Food Science 2011, 76, R6-R15, 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01957.x.
  11. Javier Parada; J.M. Aguilera; Food Microstructure Affects the Bioavailability of Several Nutrients. Journal of Food Science 2007, 72, R21-R32, 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00274.x.
  12. Chamila Nimalaratne; Daise Lopes-Lutz; Andreas Schieber; Jianping Wu; Effect of Domestic Cooking Methods on Egg Yolk Xanthophylls. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2012, 60, 12547-12552, 10.1021/jf303828n.
  13. Elisabet Fernández-García; Irene Carvajal-Lérida; Antonio Pérez-Gálvez; In vitro bioaccessibility assessment as a prediction tool of nutritional efficiency. Nutrition Research 2009, 29, 751-760, 10.1016/j.nutres.2009.09.016.
  14. Alisa Perry; Helen Rasmussen; Elizabeth J Johnson; Xanthophyll (lutein, zeaxanthin) content in fruits, vegetables and corn and egg products. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2009, 22, 9-15, 10.1016/j.jfca.2008.07.006.
  15. El-Sayed M. Abdel-Aal; J. Christopher Young; Iwona Rabalski; Pierre Hucl; Judith Fregeau-Reid; Identification and Quantification of Seed Carotenoids in Selected Wheat Species. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2007, 55, 787-794, 10.1021/jf062764p.
  16. Torben Leth; Jette Jakobsen; Niels Lyhne Andersen; The intake of carotenoids in Denmark. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 2000, 102, 128-132, 10.1002/(sici)1438-9312(200002)102:2<128::aid-ejlt128>3.0.co;2-h.
  17. Columba De La Parra; Sergio O. Serna Saldívar; Rui Hai Liu; Effect of Processing on the Phytochemical Profiles and Antioxidant Activity of Corn for Production of Masa, Tortillas, and Tortilla Chips. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2007, 55, 4177-4183, 10.1021/jf063487p.
  18. Enrique Murillo; Antonio J. Meléndez-Martínez; Falcón Portugal; Screening of vegetables and fruits from Panama for rich sources of lutein and zeaxanthin. Food Chemistry 2010, 122, 167-172, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.02.034.
  19. Ute Schweiggert; Christina Kurz; Andreas Schieber; Reinhold Carle; Effects of processing and storage on the stability of free and esterified carotenoids of red peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) and hot chilli peppers (Capsicum frutescens L.). European Food Research and Technology 2006, 225, 261-270, 10.1007/s00217-006-0413-y.
  20. J.L. Guil‐Guerrero; C. Martínez-Guirado; Ma Del Mar Rebolloso-Fuentes; A. Carrique-Pérez; Nutrient composition and antioxidant activity of 10 pepper (Capsicum annuun) varieties. European Food Research and Technology 2006, 224, 1-9, 10.1007/s00217-006-0281-5.
  21. Vera Mageney; Susanne Baldermann; Dirk C. Albach; Intraspecific Variation in Carotenoids ofBrassica oleraceavar.sabellica. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2016, 64, 3251-3257, 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b00268.
  22. Philipp Weller; Dietmar E. Breithaupt; Identification and Quantification of Zeaxanthin Esters in Plants Using Liquid Chromatography−Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2003, 51, 7044-7049, 10.1021/jf034803s.
  23. Qing-Yi Lu; James R. Arteaga; QiFeng Zhang; S. Huerta; Vay Liang W. Go; David Heber; Inhibition of prostate cancer cell growth by an avocado extract: role of lipid-soluble bioactive substances. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2005, 16, 23-30, 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.08.003.
  24. Raúl Delgado-Pelayo; Lourdes Gallardo-Guerrero; Dámaso Hornero-Méndez; Chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments in the peel and flesh of commercial apple fruit varieties. Food Research International 2014, 65, 272-281, 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.03.025.
  25. V Dragovicuzelac; B Levaj; V Mrkic; D Bursac; M Boras; The content of polyphenols and carotenoids in three apricot cultivars depending on stage of maturity and geographical region. Food Chemistry 2007, 102, 966-975, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.04.001.
  26. Raúl Delgado-Pelayo; Lourdes Gallardo-Guerrero; Dámaso Hornero-Méndez; Carotenoid composition of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) fruits. Food Chemistry 2016, 199, 165-175, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.135.
  27. Elisabete Carvalho; Paul D. Fraser; Stefan Martens; Carotenoids and tocopherols in yellow and red raspberries. Food Chemistry 2013, 139, 744-752, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.12.047.
  28. Lijie Zhong; Karl-Erik Gustavsson; Stina M. Oredsson; Bartosz Głąb; Jenny Lindberg Yilmaz; Marie E. Olsson; Determination of free and esterified carotenoid composition in rose hip fruit by HPLC-DAD-APCI+-MS. Food Chemistry 2016, 210, 541-550, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.05.002.
  29. B. Stephen Inbaraj; H. Lu; C.F. Hung; W.B. Wu; C.L. Lin; B.H. Chen; Determination of carotenoids and their esters in fruits of Lycium barbarum Linnaeus by HPLC–DAD–APCI–MS. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 2008, 47, 812-818, 10.1016/j.jpba.2008.04.001.
  30. Xin Wen; Judith Hempel; Ralf Schweiggert; Yuan-Ying Ni; Reinhold Carle; Carotenoids and Carotenoid Esters of Red and Yellow Physalis (Physalis alkekengi L. and P. pubescens L.) Fruits and Calyces. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2017, 65, 6140-6151, 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b02514.
  31. Raluca Maria Pop; Yannick J. A. Weesepoel; Carmen Socaciu; Adela Pintea; Jean-Paul Vincken; H. Gruppen; Carotenoid composition of berries and leaves from six Romanian sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) varieties. Food Chemistry 2014, 147, 1-9, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.09.083.
  32. Cristina Tudor; Torsten Bohn; Mohammed Iddir; Francisc Vasile Dulf; Monica Focsan; Dumitrita Rugina; Adela Pintea; Sea Buckthorn Oil as a Valuable Source of Bioaccessible Xanthophylls. Nutrients 2019, 12, 76, 10.3390/nu12010076.
  33. Daniele B. Rodrigues; Lilian Regina Barros Mariutti; Adriana Z. Mercadante; An in vitro digestion method adapted for carotenoids and carotenoid esters: moving forward towards standardization. Food & Function 2016, 7, 4992-5001, 10.1039/c6fo01293k.
  34. G. Astrid Garzón; Carlos-Eduardo Narváez-Cuenca; Rachel E. Kopec; Andrew M. Barry; Ken M. Riedl; Steven J. Schwartz; Determination of Carotenoids, Total Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Arazá (Eugenia stipitataMcVaugh), an Amazonian Fruit. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2012, 60, 4709-4717, 10.1021/jf205347f.
  35. M. Pilar Cano; Andrea Gómez-Maqueo; Rebeca Fernández-López; Jorge Welti-Chanes; Tomás García-Cayuela; Impact of high hydrostatic pressure and thermal treatment on the stability and bioaccessibility of carotenoid and carotenoid esters in astringent persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb, var. Rojo Brillante). Food Research International 2019, 123, 538-549, 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.05.017.
  36. Ralf Schweiggert; Ester Vargas; Jürgen Conrad; Judith Hempel; Claudia C. Gras; Jochen U. Ziegler; Angelika Mayer; Víctor Jiménez; Patricia Esquivel; Reinhold Carle; et al. Carotenoids, carotenoid esters, and anthocyanins of yellow-, orange-, and red-peeled cashew apples (Anacardium occidentale L.). Food Chemistry 2016, 200, 274-282, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.01.038.
  37. Andrea Gómez-Maqueo; Elisa Bandino; José I. Hormaza; M. Pilar Cano; Characterization and the impact of in vitro simulated digestion on the stability and bioaccessibility of carotenoids and their esters in two Pouteria lucuma varieties. Food Chemistry 2020, 316, 126369, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126369.
  38. Raúl Delgado-Pelayo; Dámaso Hornero-Méndez; Identification and Quantitative Analysis of Carotenoids and Their Esters from Sarsaparilla (Smilax aspera L.) Berries. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2012, 60, 8225-8232, 10.1021/jf302719g.
  39. Paul J.M. Hulshof; Tineke Van Roekel-Jansen; Peter Van De Bovenkamp; Clive E. West; Variation in retinol and carotenoid content of milk and milk products in The Netherlands. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2006, 19, 67-75, 10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.005.
  40. N.M. Sachindra; N. Bhaskar; N.S. Mahendrakar; Carotenoids in crabs from marine and fresh waters of India. LWT 2005, 38, 221-225, 10.1016/j.lwt.2004.06.003.
  41. Andrea Asensio-Grau; Irene Peinado; Ana Heredia; Ana Andres; Effect of cooking methods and intestinal conditions on lipolysis, proteolysis and xanthophylls bioaccessibility of eggs. Journal of Functional Foods 2018, 46, 579-586, 10.1016/j.jff.2018.05.025.
  42. Tom M.M. Bernaerts; Heleen Verstreken; Céline Dejonghe; Lore Gheysen; Imogen Foubert; Tara Grauwet; Ann M. Van Loey; Cell disruption of Nannochloropsis sp. improves in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenoids and ω3-LC-PUFA. Journal of Functional Foods 2020, 65, 103770, 10.1016/j.jff.2019.103770.
  43. Kwang Hyun Cha; Song Yi Koo; Dae-Geun Song; Cheol-Ho Pan; Effect of Microfluidization on Bioaccessibility of Carotenoids from Chlorella ellipsoidea during Simulated Digestion. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2012, 60, 9437-9442, 10.1021/jf303207x.
  44. Chao-Chin Hu; Jau-Tien Lin; Fung-Jou Lu; Fen-Pi Chou; Deng-Jye Yang; Determination of carotenoids in Dunaliella salina cultivated in Taiwan and antioxidant capacity of the algal carotenoid extract. Food Chemistry 2008, 109, 439-446, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.043.
  45. Andrea Gille; Rebecca Hollenbach; Andreas Trautmann; Clemens Posten; Karlis Briviba; Effect of sonication on bioaccessibility and cellular uptake of carotenoids from preparations of photoautotrophic Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Food Research International 2019, 118, 40-48, 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.12.040.
  46. F Granadolorencio; C Herrerobarbudo; G Acienfernandez; Emilio Molina Grima; José M Fernández-Sevilla; B Perezsacristan; I Blanconavarro; In vitro bioaccesibility of lutein and zeaxanthin from the microalgae Scenedesmus almeriensis. Food Chemistry 2009, 114, 747-752, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.10.058.
  47. Adriana Z. Mercadante; Daniele B. Rodrigues; Fabiane C. Petry; Lilian Regina Barros Mariutti; Carotenoid esters in foods - A review and practical directions on analysis and occurrence. Food Research International 2017, 99, 830-850, 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.12.018.
  48. Lilian Regina Barros Mariutti; Adriana Z. Mercadante; Carotenoid esters analysis and occurrence: What do we know so far?. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 2018, 648, 36-43, 10.1016/j.abb.2018.04.005.
  49. Ana Augusta Odorissi Xavier; Adriana Z. Mercadante; The bioaccessibility of carotenoids impacts the design of functional foods. Current Opinion in Food Science 2019, 26, 1-8, 10.1016/j.cofs.2019.02.015.
  50. M. Grashorn; Feed Additives for Influencing Chicken Meat and Egg Yolk Color. Handbook on Natural Pigments in Food and Beverages 2016, 1, 283-302, 10.1016/b978-0-08-100371-8.00014-2.
  51. John Nolan; Katherine A. Meagher; Alan N. Howard; Rachel Moran; David I. Thurnham; Stephen Beatty; Lutein, zeaxanthin and meso-zeaxanthin content of eggs laid by hens supplemented with free and esterified xanthophylls. Journal of Nutritional Science 2016, 5, e1, 10.1017/jns.2015.35.
  52. H. S. Shin; J. W. Kim; D. G. Lee; S. Lee; D. Y. Kil; J. H. Kim; Effect of feeding duration of diets containing corn distillers dried grains with solubles on productive performance, egg quality, and lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations of egg yolk in laying hens. Poultry Science 2016, 95, 2366-2371, 10.3382/ps/pew127.
  53. Hae-Yun Chung; Helen M. Rasmussen; Elizabeth J Johnson; Lutein Bioavailability Is Higher from Lutein-Enriched Eggs than from Supplements and Spinach in Men. The Journal of Nutrition 2004, 134, 1887-1893, 10.1093/jn/134.8.1887.
  54. M. Minekus; Marie Larsson Alminger; Paula Alvito; Simon Ballance; Torsten Bohn; Claire Bourlieu; Frédéric Carrière; Rachel Boutrou; M. Corredig; Didier Dupont; et al.Claire DufourLotti EggerMatt GoldingSibel KarakayaBente KirkhusSteven Le FeunteunUri LesmesAdam MacierzankaAlan MackieSébastien MarzeDavid Julian McCleimentsOlivia MénardIsidra RecioCláudia N. SantosR. Paul SinghGerd E. VegarudM. S. J. WickhamWerner WeitschiesAndré Brodkorb A standardised staticin vitrodigestion method suitable for food – an international consensus. Food & Function 2014, 5, 1113-1124, 10.1039/c3fo60702j.
  55. Francisco Torregrosa; Clara Cortés; Maria J Esteve; Ana Frígola; Effect of High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields Processing and Conventional Heat Treatment on Orange−Carrot Juice Carotenoids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2005, 53, 9519-9525, 10.1021/jf051171w.
  56. Enrique Sentandreu; Carla M. Stinco; Isabel M. Vicario; Paula Mapelli-Brahm; José L. Navarro; Antonio J. Meléndez-Martínez; High-pressure homogenization as compared to pasteurization as a sustainable approach to obtain mandarin juices with improved bioaccessibility of carotenoids and flavonoids. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020, 262, 121325, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121325.
  57. Carla M. Stinco; Enrique Sentandreu; Paula Mapelli-Brahm; José L. Navarro; Isabel M. Vicario; Antonio J. Meléndez-Martínez; Influence of high pressure homogenization and pasteurization on the in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenoids and flavonoids in orange juice. Food Chemistry 2020, 331, 127259, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127259.
  58. Elisabet Fernández-García; Irene Carvajal-Lérida; Manuel Jarén-Galán; Juan Garrido-Fernández; Antonio Pérez-Gálvez; Dámaso Hornero-Méndez; Carotenoids bioavailability from foods: From plant pigments to efficient biological activities. Food Research International 2012, 46, 438-450, 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.06.007.
  59. Songhao Zhang; Jing Ji; Siqi Zhang; Chunfeng Guan; Gang Wang; Effects of three cooking methods on content changes and absorption efficiencies of carotenoids in maize.. Food & Function 2020, 11, 944-954, 10.1039/c9fo02622c.
  60. Daniele B. Rodrigues; Chureeporn Chitchumroonchokchai; Lilian Regina Barros Mariutti; Adriana Z. Mercadante; Mark L. Failla; Comparison of Two Static in Vitro Digestion Methods for Screening the Bioaccessibility of Carotenoids in Fruits, Vegetables, and Animal Products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2017, 65, 11220-11228, 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04854.
  61. Emily Y. Chew; Traci E. Clemons; John Paul SanGiovanni; Ronald P. Danis; Frederick L. Ferris; Michael J. Elman; Andrew N. Antoszyk; Alan J. Ruby; David Orth; Susan B. Bressler; et al.Gary E. FishGeorge Baker HubbardMichael L. KleinSuresh R. ChandraBarbara A. BlodiAmitha DomalpallyThomas FribergWai T. WongPhilip J. RosenfeldElvira AgrónCynthia A. TothPaul S. BernsteinRobert D. SperdutoAge-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) Research GroupBaker Hubbard Secondary Analyses of the Effects of Lutein/Zeaxanthin on Age-Related Macular Degeneration Progression. JAMA Ophthalmology 2014, 132, 142-9, 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.7376.
  62. Carla M. Stinco; Gloria Pumilia; Daniele Giuffrida; Giacomo Dugo; Antonio J. Meléndez-Martínez; Isabel M. Vicario; Bioaccessibility of carotenoids, vitamin A and α-tocopherol, from commercial milk-fruit juice beverages: Contribution to the recommended daily intake. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2019, 78, 24-32, 10.1016/j.jfca.2019.01.019.
  63. Gilsandro Alves Da Costa; Adriana Z. Mercadante; In vitro bioaccessibility of free and esterified carotenoids in cajá frozen pulp-based beverages. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2018, 68, 53-59, 10.1016/j.jfca.2017.02.012.
  64. Paul S. Bernstein; Binxing Li; Preejith Vachali And Aaron Martin; Aruna Gorusupudi; Rajalekshmy Shyam; Bradley S. Henriksen; John Nolan; Lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zeaxanthin: The basic and clinical science underlying carotenoid-based nutritional interventions against ocular disease.. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 2015, 50, 34-66, 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003.
  65. Elizabeth J Johnson; Role of lutein and zeaxanthin in visual and cognitive function throughout the lifespan. Nutrition Reviews 2014, 72, 605-612, 10.1111/nure.12133.
  66. Manfred Eggersdorfer; Adrian Wyss; Carotenoids in human nutrition and health. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 2018, 652, 18-26, 10.1016/j.abb.2018.06.001.
  67. Elizabeth J Johnson; A possible role for lutein and zeaxanthin in cognitive function in the elderly. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2012, 96, 1161S-1165S, 10.3945/ajcn.112.034611.
  68. Billy R. Jr. Hammond; L. Stephen Miller; Medina O. Bello; Cutter A. Lindbergh; Catherine Mewborn; Lisa M. Renzi-Hammond; Effects of Lutein/Zeaxanthin Supplementation on the Cognitive Function of Community Dwelling Older Adults: A Randomized, Double-Masked, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 2017, 9, 254, 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00254.
  69. Rohini Vishwanathan; Matthew J. Kuchan; Sarbattama Sen; Elizabeth J Johnson; Lutein and Preterm Infants With Decreased Concentrations of Brain Carotenoids. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition 2014, 59, 659-665, 10.1097/mpg.0000000000000389.
  70. Bradley S. Henriksen; Gary Chan; Robert O. Hoffman; Mohsen Sharifzadeh; Igor V. Ermakov; Werner Gellermann; Paul S. Bernstein; Interrelationships Between Maternal Carotenoid Status and Newborn Infant Macular Pigment Optical Density and Carotenoid Status. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science 2013, 54, 5568-5578, 10.1167/iovs.13-12331.
More