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Topic Review
2-[18F]FDG PET/CT
PET (positron emission tomography) is a noninvasive functional imaging technique based on the detection of photons resulting from the annihilation of positrons emitted by a radioactive substance known as radiotracer or radiopharmaceutical. PET equipments usually incorporate a computed tomography scanner (PET/CT) in order to obtain hybrid functional-anatomical images. Different radiotracers are used to study different physiologic processes, such as blood flow, bone turnover or expression of certain cell receptors. The most common radiotracer used in clinical practice is 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-d-glucose (2-[18F]FDG), a glucose analogue binded to a radioactive isotope of fluor that informs about glucose metabolism in the body. As cancer cells have high energy requirements (and, therefore, high glucose consumption), this radiotracer is mostly used to evaluate oncologic processes (disease extension, response to treatment, etc.). However, some types of cancer have low 2-[18F]FDG uptake (e.g., well-differentiated or slow-growing neoplasms), and others can have a variable uptake due to the action of certain enzymes in the metabolic route of glucose (e.g., hepatocellular carcinoma).  
  • 454
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
3 Cycles of 177Lu-PSMA Therapy
The [177Lu]Lu-PSMA radioligand therapy (PSMA-RLT) has emerged as a successful treatment option in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). 
  • 501
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
3D Lung Cancer Models
3D models of cancer primarily refer to patient-derived xenografts, spheroids, and organoids and have been established for a variety of cancer types, including lung cancer. 3D lung cancer models have been demonstrated to more accurately model patient cancers and have the potential to advance basic, translational, and clinical studies.
  • 618
  • 13 Apr 2021
Topic Review
3D Modeling of Epithelial Tumors
The current statistics on cancer show that 90% of all human cancers originate from epithelial cells. Breast and prostate cancer are examples of common tumors of epithelial origin that would benefit from improved drug treatment strategies. About 90% of preclinically approved drugs fail in clinical trials, partially due to the use of too simplified in vitro models and a lack of mimicking the tumor microenvironment in drug efficacy testing. This entry focuses on the epithelial cancers, followed by experimental models designed to recapitulate the epithelial tumor structure and microenvironment. A specific focus is to put on novel technologies for cell culture of spheroids, organoids, and 3D-printed tissue-like models, utilizing biomaterials of natural or synthetic origins, and how the models could be utilized for nanotechnology-based drug delivery in the future.
  • 591
  • 24 Jun 2021
Topic Review
3D Pancreatic Cancer Models
Pancreatic cancer is an extremely lethal malignancy with a survival rate lower than any other cancer type. For decades, two-dimensional (2D) cultures have been the cornerstone for studying cancer cell biology and drug testing, due to their simplicity and cost. However, their inability to reconstitute the tumor architecture, the absence of nutrient and oxygen supply gradients, as well as the lack of appropriate mechano-forces that mimic the extracellular microenvironment, make them an inadequate model to accurately reproduce tissue level-specific characteristics. Bioengineering systems, such as three-dimensional (3D) patient-specific models, are progressively emerging as systems better able to mimic the biology of pancreatic tumors and to test new anticancer therapies, as they more efficiently recapitulate the complex tumor microenvironment characteristic of pancreatic tumors.
  • 687
  • 22 Mar 2021
Topic Review
3D-Printed Tumour Models
Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has revolutionized our perception of how advanced technologies contribute to medical education and clinical practice by augmenting the current visualization tools or standard diagnostic or planning approaches used in the different fields of medicine. 3D printed personalized models serve as a valuable tool in improving understanding of complex anatomy and pathology, in particular, when assessing tumours, since 3D printed physical models provide direct visualization of the tumour in relation to surrounding structures. 
  • 202
  • 21 Feb 2023
Topic Review
5-ALA Metabolic Pathway
5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is a natural amino acid and a precursor of heme and chlorophyll. Exogenously administered 5-ALA is metabolized into protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). PpIX accumulates in cancer cells because of the low activity of ferrochelatase, an enzyme that metabolizes PpIX to heme. High expression of 5-ALA influx transporters, such as peptide transporters 1/2, in cancer cells also enhances PpIX production. Because PpIX radiates red fluorescence when excited with blue/violet light, 5-ALA has been used for the visualization of various tumors. 
  • 607
  • 22 Jun 2022
Topic Review
5-Aminolevulinic Acid in Gliomas
5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is a porphyrin precursor in the heme synthesis pathway. When supplied exogenously, certain cancers consume 5-ALA and convert it to the fluorogenic metabolite protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), causing tumor-specific tissue fluorescence. Preoperative administration of 5-ALA is used to aid neurosurgical resection of high-grade gliomas such as glioblastoma, allowing for increased extent of resection and progression free survival for these patients. Targeting the heme synthesis pathway and understanding its dysregulation in malignant tissues could aid the development of adjunct therapies to increase intraoperative fluorescence after 5-ALA treatment
  • 511
  • 14 Apr 2021
Topic Review
5-Aminolevulinic Acid in Photodynamic Therapy
5-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is a naturally occurring amino acid synthesized in all nucleated mammalian cells. As a porphyrin precursor, ALA is metabolized in the heme biosynthetic pathway to produce protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), a fluorophore and photosensitizing agent. ALA administered exogenously bypasses the rate-limit step in the pathway, resulting in PpIX accumulation in tumor tissues. Such tumor-selective PpIX disposition following ALA administration has been exploited for tumor fluorescence diagnosis and photodynamic therapy (PDT) with much success. Five ALA-based drugs have now received worldwide approval and are being used for managing very common human (pre)cancerous diseases such as actinic keratosis and basal cell carcinoma or guiding the surgery of bladder cancer and high-grade gliomas, making it the most successful drug discovery and development endeavor in PDT and photodiagnosis. 
  • 367
  • 04 May 2023
Topic Review
89Zr-PET Imaging Other than Immuno-PET
89Zr is an emerging radionuclide that plays an essential role in immuno‐positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Immuno‐PET combines the sensitivity of PET with the specificity of antibodies, and thus is useful for predicting the efficacy of radioimmunotherapy and antibody therapies, imaging target expression, detecting target‐expressing tumors, and the monitoring of anti‐cancer chemotherapies. PET using 89Zr is not confined to antibody imaging. In this review, we discuss 89Zr‐PET applications other than immuno‐PET.
  • 601
  • 22 Jun 2020
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