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Topic Review
Fossil Fuel Phase-Out
Fossil fuel phase-out is the gradual reduction of the use of fossil fuels to zero use. Current efforts in fossil fuel phase-out involve replacing fossil fuels with alternative energy sources in sectors such as transport, heating and industry.
  • 856
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Methods of Thermal Treatment of Radioactive Waste
Nuclear power is generated by a small amount of fuel, as related to other non-renewable energy sources. The volume of waste formed in this process is comparably small. Thermal treatment of waste is a term given to any treatment technology that involves high temperatures in the processing of the waste feedstock. All the thermal treatment methods used for normal waste have been applied to radioactive waste.  
  • 856
  • 24 Jan 2022
Topic Review
St. Mary's Islands
St. Mary's Islands, also known as Coconut Island and Thonsepar, are a set of four small islands in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Malpe in Udipi, Karnataka, India. They are known for their distinctive geological formation of columnar rhyolitic lava (pictured). Scientific studies indicate that the basalt of the St. Mary's Islands was formed by sub-aerial subvolcanic activity, because at that time Madagascar was attached to India. The rifting of Madagascar took place around 88 million years ago. Columnar rhyolite Lava here form one of the four geological monuments in Karnataka state, one of the 34 National Geological Monuments of India declared by the Geological Survey of India in 2016 for their protection, maintenance, promotion and enhancement of geotourism. The monument is considered an important site for "Geo Tourism".
  • 856
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Dam Effects the Ecosystems of Nearby Marine Areas
Dams have made great contributions to human society, facilitating flood control, power generation, shipping, agriculture, and industry. However, the construction of dams greatly impacts downstream ecological environments and nearby marine areas. 
  • 855
  • 22 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Sustainable Development and Environmental Kuznets Curve
Under the Kyoto Protocol which is international law since 2005, 15 EU member countries (the "EU-15") committed to reducing their collective emissions of a set of six greenhouse gases in the 2008-2012 period to 8% below the 1990 level. The EU established the first cap-and-trade system for carbon dioxide emissions in the world in 2005. This entry uses the effect of the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for the European Union using a cross-country panel data set consisting of 12 countries extracted from the EU-15 from 1980 to 2009. 
  • 855
  • 18 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Agricultural Drainage
Practicing agricultural drainage strategies is necessary to manage excess water in poorly drained irrigated farmlands to protect them from induced waterlogging and salinity problems. 
  • 854
  • 16 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Climate Change, Security and the Nexus Concept
The nexus concept has been emerging since the Bonn 2011 Conference, “The Water Energy and Food Security Nexus—Solutions for the Green Economy”, with significant involvement from the UN and other international organisations. It has been defined as a “set of context-specific critical interlinkages between two or more natural resources used in delivery chains towards systems of provision”. From a policy perspective, it looks at delivery chains of resources, such as water and energy, in a polycentric manner, i.e., as independent providers based on ecosystem services with interlinkages across delivery stages, but without a presumed hierarchy among those dimensions. Thus, water, energy and food are seen as interrelated and of equal priority for the SDGs, considering the specific conditions of their provision and the strategic interests of relevant actors.
  • 853
  • 15 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Geotourism and Ecotourism
The two forms of tourism, ecotourism and geotourism, are considered forms of experiential tourism, and they sometimes also raise questions such as about the differences between them in terms of their elements of attraction. Ecotourists, in addition to ecological activities related to natural attractions, add and focus seriously on the cultural side of the wild side, but also on the constructed, humanised, and culturalised sides of the countryside outside or close to purely geotouristic attractions (hence the assimilation of ecotourism with rural tourism or agrotourism).
  • 853
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Dripping Rainfall Simulators for Soil Research
Rainfall simulators represent often-used equipment for soil research. Depending on their performance, they could be appropriate for some soil research or not. Dripping rainfall simulators (DRS) can provide rainfall that corresponds to natural rainfall, except in terms of the drop size distribution and wetted area. However, usually there are more factors that do not correspond to natural rainfall, such as the median drop size, volume and kinetic energy. The sizes of the drops generated by the simulator drippers are mostly in the range between 2 and 6 mm, while the number of drops smaller than 2 mm is relatively small. The intensity and duration of the simulated rain can be successfully produced to match natural values, with the most frequently simulated short-term rainfall of a high intensity. Most simulations were conducted at a fall height of up to 2 m, and then their number gradually decreases as the height gets closer to 5 m. Most simulations (58.6%) occur in the range between 20–90% KE, then 33.0% in a range of 90–100%, with only 8.4% lower than 20% KE.
  • 853
  • 15 May 2023
Topic Review
Urban Built and Mixed Spaces
Natural areas are now broadly recognised as important resources to restore the cognitive and emotional resources of urban dwellers, but everyday urban environments are rarely studied for their salutogenic properties. This review collects emerging evidence of instances in which built and mixed urban environments were found to be more restorative than natural ones for the urban population. Generally, historical, recreational and panoramic places have been found to have the most restorative potential of all mixed and built urban environments. This particularly applies to teenagers and older people who value social interactions for their well-being. Vegetation and natural elements were still found to play an important role in the assessment of this restorative potential.
  • 852
  • 27 Oct 2020
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