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Naviglio, D. Rapid Solid-Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE). Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/11299 (accessed on 29 March 2024).
Naviglio D. Rapid Solid-Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE). Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/11299. Accessed March 29, 2024.
Naviglio, Daniele. "Rapid Solid-Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE)" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/11299 (accessed March 29, 2024).
Naviglio, D. (2021, June 25). Rapid Solid-Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE). In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/11299
Naviglio, Daniele. "Rapid Solid-Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE)." Encyclopedia. Web. 25 June, 2021.
Rapid Solid-Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE)
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Rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), performed using the Naviglio extractor, compared to traditional applications, is a technique that is able to reduce extraction times, generally leads to higher yields, does not require heating of the system, allows one to extract the active ingredients, and avoids their degradation. This technique is based on a new solid-liquid extraction principle named Naviglio’s principle: "By using a suitable solvent, the generating of a negative gradient pressure between the outlet and the inlet of a solid matrix containing some extractable material, followed by a sudden restoration of the initial equilibrium conditions, induces the forced extraction of substances not chemically bonded to the principal structure of which the solid is formed".

solid-liquid extraction green extraction RSLDE bioactive compounds Naviglio extractor Naviglio’s principle pressure-depressure effect pressure gradient solid matrix active principles

1. Introduction

Solid-liquid extraction processes, both traditional ones (maceration and percolation) and those introduced more recently (e.g., supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), are based on two fundamental principles: diffusion and/or osmosis. On the basis of these principles, it is possible to make some general forecasts in relation to the extractive system, and it is possible to roughly hypothesize the extraction times and yields with respect to a generic solid matrix (generally vegetable) [1]. Three variables are to be optimized to achieve the best extractive conditions: by decreasing the “granulometry” of the solid, the extractive yield increases because of an increased surface area of contact between solid and liquid; the raising of the “temperature” of the system reduces the time of extraction due to the increase in diffusion phenomena (Fick’s law); the increase of the “affinity” of the extraction liquid towards the compounds to be extracted increases the effectiveness of the extraction process (similis similia solvuntur). However, the extractive principles which these techniques are based on have no active effect on the characteristics of the process, such as extraction times, yield, and efficiency. In fact, once the conditions have been set, the system reaches an equilibrium condition that can change only by modifying some parameters, such as the temperature or the addition of other extraction liquid [2]. For this reason, it is suggested that the extractive batch must be mixed during extraction to avoid a partial extraction due to the slow diffusion of compounds extracted.
Though solid-liquid extraction is a technique that has been known for a long time and is still widely used, there are still many unknown aspects that require further investigation to fully understand the mechanism. In the field of solid-liquid extraction techniques, it is possible to distinguish conventional extraction techniques, including maceration, percolation, squeezing, counter-current extraction, extraction through Soxhlet, and distillation, from unconventional (or innovative) ones. Conventional extractions have been used for many years, although they have many drawbacks: they require the use of high quantities of expensive and pure solvents, since during the process they consume a high amount; they have a low selectivity of extraction; they have a high solvent evaporation rate during the process; and they are generally characterized by long extraction times and by the thermal decomposition of thermolabile compounds [3][4]. To overcome all these limitations, new and promising solid-liquid extraction techniques, which are defined as non-conventional, have been introduced, mainly in the industrial field, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) [5], supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) [6], microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) [7], extraction with accelerated solvent [8], solid phase microextraction [9], enzyme-assisted extraction [10], and rapid solid-liquid extraction dynamic (RSLDE) via the Naviglio extractor [11]. On the other hand, the interest of the scientific community has recently been aimed at the study of sustainable processes, so all these extraction techniques have common objectives, including the extraction of active ingredients (bioactive compounds) from the vegetable matrices, as well as their by-products for the valorization of waste, to improve the selectivity of the processes, to isolate the bioactive compounds in more suitable forms for detection and separation, and to provide an effective and reproducible method that is independent of the variability of the sample matrices; furthermore, high extraction yields are preferable to promote the economy of the process [12][13][14].
However, the extraction procedure generally takes place in a single solution (a single-step process), and it is difficult to set two or more extraction stages, because of the rise in extractant volume and time. Only the Soxhlet extractor limits the solvent volume, because it uses the distillation of the solvent, and the process works with fresh solvent. This can be considered a multi-step extractive process. Vice versa, RSLDE is based on a different principle. In fact, “the generation, with a suitable solvent, of a negative pressure gradient between the outside and the inside of a solid matrix containing extractable material, followed by a sudden restoration of the initial equilibrium conditions, induces forced extraction of the compounds not chemically linked to the main structure of which the solid is made” [11]. RSLDE changes the philosophy of solid-liquid extraction; the extraction happens thanks to a negative gradient of pressure between the inner material and the outside of the solid matrix (high pressure inside and low pressure outside; Naviglio’s principle). When the gradient of pressure is removed, the liquid flows out of the solid in a very fast manner and carries out all substances not chemically bonded to the main structure of the solid. This means that in this case the extraction is an “active” process because the gradient of pressure forces out the molecules, while techniques based on diffusion and osmosis are “passive” processes because the molecules are not forced out of the matrix.
According to this principle, the solid-liquid extraction process is first of all independent of the affinity that the compounds to be extracted from the solid matrix have towards the extracting solvent: they are, in fact, extracted by a difference of pressure between the liquid inside the matrix and the liquid on the outside of it. They are extracted out of the solid with a suction effect and can therefore also be extracted in solvents with opposite or different polarity. Furthermore, the pressure effect on the solid matrix and following the de-pressure leads to an active action with respect to the extraction process, as a small quantity of material is extracted at each pressure and depression cycle (the “active” solid-liquid extractive process), the extent of which is closely correlated with the pressure difference generated between the inside and the outside of the solid matrix and to the features of the solid matrix. Based on this new and innovative extractive principle, it has been made possible, in many cases, to use water as an extraction solvent, a condition that cannot be achieved with traditional techniques, such as maceration and percolation; in this case, the fermentative process is slower due to the movement of liquid around the solid, and this prevents the microorganisms from growing [15].

2. State of the Art of Solid-Liquid Extraction Techniques

Solid-liquid extraction techniques are the basis of many analytical procedures for the preparation of samples and are reported in the official methods of analysis [16]. On the other hand, they are applied to the production of small quantities of homemade extracts such as alcoholic beverages and herbal teas [17][18]. These extraction procedures are also applied to industrial production. In fact, in many industrial processes, the initial phase of the preparation of a product requires the application of a solid-liquid extraction technique to isolate the extractable material contained in the most varied solid matrices, mainly vegetables. An important example is represented by medicinal plants, from which active ingredients with pharmacological properties are obtained; related fields are those of herbal medicine, cosmetics, and perfumery, which are the most ancient applications. In other industrial sectors such as the beverage industry, a solid-liquid extraction is used to obtain alcoholic extracts of fruit peels, flowers, leaves, etc., which are then mixed with water and sugar to obtain the finished product. The list could continue by referring to multiple industrial applications that are very similar.
The solid-liquid extraction is based on a simple phenomenon: if a solid matrix containing extractable compounds is immersed in a liquid, the latter begins to enrich itself with certain chemically related substances that move from the inside to the surface of the solid and then from the surface into the liquid. This principle is based on diffusion and osmosis and is performed by maceration, which is the simplest and most economical extraction technique and is therefore widely used. The maceration process requires only a closable glass or stainless steel container in which extractable solid is covered with liquid. To overcome the rapid saturation of liquid strictly around the solid, desultory agitation is required. Unfortunately, it is not always applicable, because it requires long contact times between the solid and the liquid; for example, plants cannot be macerated in water at room temperature for a very long time due to rotting phenomena. The production needs of the industry, which require the obtaining of large volumes of extracts in a short amount of time, have found an application in percolation extraction; in this case it is possible to process large quantities of solid material with large volumes of liquid and obtain the extract quite quickly, albeit sacrificing the efficiency of the extraction, which remains low due to the limited contact between the solid and the extracting liquid [19]. In this case, the solid matrix is not completely exhausted and could be re-extracted with another technique.
For special applications, such as the production of essential oils and, in general, compounds with low vapor pressure, it is possible to resort to steam distillation [20]. This solid-liquid extraction technique is particular in that it requires the transport of volatile compounds through a steam flow; since the isolated product is an essential oil, it can be considered a solid-liquid extraction technique. In any case, the extraction system is subjected to strong heating; therefore, the thermolabile compounds undergo transformations and consequently are not kept intact. As a result of this, steam distillation is not often applicable.
These examples serve to indicate that each of the solid-liquid extraction techniques that are currently used are not universally applicable since they are limited. Moreover, the extractive principle on which they are based is essentially linked to the phenomena of diffusion and osmosis of the substances contained in the solid, which tend to occupy the entire volume of the extracting liquid, after extraction. Therefore, desultory agitation of the extraction batch is necessary. To increase the efficiency of these extraction systems and to reduce the time of extraction, a temperature increase is used, which affects the increase in diffusion (Fick’s law), in order to reduce extraction times and increase yields. Generally, this expedient is not often applicable (over 40 °C) to vegetable matrices, because they contain substances that degrade due to heat, especially active principles [21][22].
The use of ultrasounds for the extraction of active ingredients from medicinal plants leads to the same results as extraction by pressing (squeezing). Furthermore, the system heats up due to the prolonged treatment, the solid matrix is completely crushed, and a mixture that is very difficult to separate into its constituents is obtained. Among other things, the use of ultrasound energy of more than 20 kHz may have an effect on the active phytochemicals through the formation of free radicals [23]. However, due to its speed, its economic advantage, and the relatively low-cost technology involved, UAE is one of the techniques used in the industry for bioactive compound extractions. As a result, in many cases, ultrasounds can be a good alternative to pressing because it simplifies the extractive system [24].
An alternative extraction technique is based on the use of supercritical fluids, mainly based on the use of carbon dioxide. In the supercritical phase, carbon dioxide assumes the characteristics of a non-polar solvent and is comparable to liquid n-hexane; with this method, it is therefore possible to extract non-polar compounds from solid matrices. The advantage of this technique is that, at the end of the extraction, the solvent, the carbon dioxide, is removed in the form of gas, enabling the possibility of recovering the concentrated extracted compounds with a very low environmental impact (green extraction). This technique finds applications at an industrial level, such as the extraction of oil from seeds, caffeine from coffee, nicotine from tobacco, etc. [25], but it is still very expensive and not universally applicable due to the difficulty of changing the polarity of carbon dioxide and for the interference of water contained in solids [26].
Another extraction technique is Soxhlet extraction, which is reported as an official extraction method [27] for numerous analytical methods in which an initial preparation of a solid sample extract is expected. The Soxhlet method also uses system heating, since it is based on the principles of diffusion and osmosis, so it cannot be used for substances that degrade due to heat [28]. Soxhlet extraction is a good method for the extraction of high boiling substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), dioxine, triglycerides, and so on. Nowadays, an improved method to perform Soxhlet extraction is named Soxtec [29]; this process is based on the same principles; however, thanks to pressure control, it is possible to accelerate the recirculation of the extractant solvent. In this way, the process is about 10 times faster [30].
To increase extraction yields and reduce time, accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) can be used [31]. This technique is based on an increase in diffusion because it is possible to extract solids by using liquids operating above their boiling temperature while being maintained in a liquid state by the increase in pressure. The material to be extracted is placed in a cylindrical steel container, and the extracting solvent is introduced; the temperature of the system is raised above the boiling point of the solvent, which is maintained in the liquid state thanks to a simultaneous increase in pressure (the vial is sealed to resist high pressure values: 100–200 bar). After a short contact period, the solid matrix is completely extracted. With this technique, it is not possible to extract thermally unstable compounds [32].
In this paper, a review of innovative solid-liquid extraction technology is presented, which can be used as a valid alternative to the existing ones, RSLDE, which can be considered a green means of extraction. The application of green technology aims to preserve the natural environment and its resources, and to limit the negative influence of human involvement [33]. The philosophy of green chemistry is to develop and encourage the utilization of procedures that reduce and/or eliminate the use or production of hazardous substances. The extraction takes place for the generation of a negative pressure gradient from the inside towards the outside of the solid matrix, so it can be carried out at room temperature, or even sub-environmental temperatures [11]. The functioning of this innovative system is based on a new solid-liquid extractive principle, as it is not equivalent to others reported in literature. The patent of the instrument named the Naviglio extractor was released in 2000 [34] and registered in 1998. An extractive cycle consists of both static and dynamic phases. During the static phase, the liquid is maintained under pressure at about 10 bar on the solid to be extracted and is left long enough to let the liquid penetrate inside the solid and to balance the pressure between the inside and the outside of the solid (about 1–3 min). After this, at the beginning of the dynamic phase, the pressure immediately drops to atmospheric pressure, causing a rapid flowing of liquid from the inside to the outlet of the solid matrix. At this moment, there is a suction effect of the liquid from the inside towards the outside of the solid. This rapid displacement of the extracting solvent transports the extractable material (compounds not chemically linked) outwards. The cycles can be repeated until the solid runs out. Experimental tests carried out to date on more than 200 vegetables have shown that, working at a pressure of about 10 bar, most solid matrices, regardless of the degree of crumbling, can be extracted using about 30 extractive cycles (two-minute static phase; two-minute dynamic phase) that are completed in two hours. Furthermore, the reproducibility of the extraction on the same matrix in terms of yield was proven, and experiments were carried out to compare this method with other extraction techniques, which showed that RSLDE had a higher recovery and a higher quality of extract, and in no case was the alteration of thermolabile substances induced [11] (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the Naviglio extractor consisting of two extraction chambers connected via a conduit: the first two images show the dynamic phase, while the third image the static phase.

3. Comparison between the Various Solid-Liquid Extraction Techniques: Pros and Cons

The choice of methods and technologies related to an extraction process based on solid-liquid contact is not simple and this depends largely on the structural complexity and composition of the solid matrix; therefore it is not easy to find universal methods suitable for every type of Solid-Liquid extraction. In choosing the most appropriate techniques, operating conditions, solvents, etc., knowledge of the chemical properties of the compounds to be extracted and their behavior in the presence of different solvents is of fundamental importance. Due to the large extent of vegetables, operating conditions (granulometry of solid, different extractant liquids and their mix, temperature etc.) to the date, numerical and/or mathematical models that could anticipate the time and yield of extraction starting from precise conditions (solid type, solvent, temperature and so on) are not available. Alongside the aforementioned classical techniques, over the years others have been added; more complex and efficient and based on innovative extraction principles, such as extraction with supercritical fluids (SFE), ultrasound extraction (UAE), microwave extraction (MAE), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and finally the rapid solid liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) that uses the Naviglio extractor, which due to its characteristics of efficiency and improvement compared to other extraction techniques, was the subject of this review. RSLDE is an interesting new and innovative Solid-Liquid technology because it changes the philosophy of extraction; diffusion and osmosis are negligible in respect to the extraction based on difference in pressure between the inner material and the outlet of the solid matrix; this makes the extractive process “active” because it forces molecules out of solid. Below are the positive and negative aspects, pros and cons, of the main Solid-Liquid extraction techniques, nowadays existing, and briefly summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison and main characteristics of Solid-Liquid extraction techniques are herein presented.

Extraction Technique

Solvent

Granulometry

Time

Yield

Quality Extracted

Extract Stability

References

Squeezing

Indifferent

Not important

Minimum

Exhaustive

Poor

Poor

[35][36][37][38]

Maceration

Fundamental

Important

Long

Exhaustive

Great

Great

[39][40]

Decotion

Fundamental

Important

Long

Exhaustive

Great

Great

[41][42]

Percolation

Fundamental

Important

Middle

Partial

Good

Good

[43]

Soxhlet

Fundamental

Important

Long

Exhaustive

Poor

Poor

[28][44]

SCD

Indifferent

Not important

Middle

Partial

Poor

Poor

[45]

MAE

Fundamental

Not important

Middle

Partial

Poor

Poor

[46][47]

UAE

Fundamental

Not important

Middle

Partial

Great

Great

[48][49]

SFE

Indifferent

Not Important

Middle

Exhaustive

Poor

Poor

[50][51]

ASE

Fundamental

Not important

Minimum

Exhaustive

Poor

Poor

[8][52]

RSLDE

Indifferent

Not important

Minimum

Exhaustive

Great

Great

[53]

Abbreviations: SCD: steam current distillation; MAE: microwave-assisted extraction; UAE: ultrasound-assisted extraction; SFE: supercritical fluid extraction; ASE: accelerated Solid-Liquid extraction; RSLDE: rapid Solid-Liquid dynamic extraction.

4. RSLDE Applications in Various Industries

4.1. The Pharmaceutical Sector

In the pharmaceutical sector, RSLDE has been used in the preparation of high-quality standardized extracts, including medicinal plant extracts and herbal extracts, fluid extracts, mother tinctures, glycerinated extracts, glyceric macerates, liposoluble extracts, bitter medicines, etc., all of which were obtained in a much shorter period of time (4–8 h) compared to maceration, which took 21 days (maceration data provided by the Official Pharmacopoeia) [39]. The speed of the process, the extraction at low temperature, and the high efficiency guarantee the total recovery of non-degraded active ingredients contained in medicinal plants [11].
Paullinia cupana seeds, commonly called guarana, are natural sources of phenolic antioxidants and antimicrobial compounds, and the use of guarana extract is interesting for the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, where such natural additives are required [54]. A work by Basile et al. (2005) has reported extraction from Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis Mart. (Sapindaceae) seeds via RSLDE. Moreover, the antibacterial and antioxidant activity of the ethanol extract was assessed towards selected bacteria and in different antioxidant models [55].
Cardiospermum halicacabum is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Sapindaceae family, widely used in traditional medicine for its therapeutic properties. Menichini et al. (2014) analyzed the chemical composition of extracts from aerial parts and seeds, the inhibitory properties against some enzymes, and the antioxidant effects obtained using RSLDE and the Soxhlet method. The findings suggested the potential of both seeds and aerial parts of C. halicacabum for the treatment of neurological disorders [56]. Moreover, RSLDE was used to extract the flowering aerial parts of Schizogyne sericea, a halophytic shrub that is widespread on the coastal rocks of Tenerife (Canary Islands). The extracts obtained were assayed for in vitro biological activities. Results showed that aqueous extracts, rich in phenolic acids, were endowed with relevant radical scavenging activity [57].
Therefore, among the green extraction techniques used to improve the sensitivity and the selectivity of analytical methods, RSLDE represents a sustainable alternative to classical sample-preparation procedures used in the past [58]. In a study by Cozzolino et al. (2016), the extraction of curcuminoids by RSLDE was performed from Curcuma longa roots, focusing the interest on curcumin, the major phenolic component of the root that has been shown to have high antioxidant activity [59]. On the other hand, some studies have shown that curcumin exerts anti-tumor effects for its ability to induce apoptosis in cancer cells without cytotoxic effects on healthy cells. Moreover, some research has demonstrated an absence of toxicity in humans when dosing this active principle for short periods of time. Therefore, for its beneficial and healing properties, curcumin obtained by the described extraction method may be used as a natural dietary supplement [60]. A comparison between three extraction processes, including traditional maceration in n-hexane and ethyl alcohol, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and cyclically pressurized extraction (CPE), also known as RSLDE, has been carried out for the extraction of pyrethrins, predominantly nonpolar natural compounds with insecticidal properties found in pyrethrum, an extract of certain species of chrysanthemums [61].

4.2. The Cosmetic Sector

In cosmetics and perfumery, both in production and research, it is possible to produce extracts from vegetable matrices that contain pigments and odorous substances for the production and formulation of creams and perfumes. Officinal plants are raw, cosmetic materials that have been used in numerous formulations since ancient times. Plant extraction methods are carried out to obtain active phytocomplexes, both lipo and hydrosoluble [62]. The active ingredients of plants can be obtained from the plant complex or can be taken with drugs, a term that indicates the part or parts of the plant in which the active ingredients are present. Plant drugs are essentially whole plants (fragmented or cut), parts of plants, algae, fungi, or lichens in an untreated state, generally in dried form, but sometimes fresh. Phytocosmetic plants include vasal reinforcers (e.g., root ruscus, blueberry fruits, and gingko leaves), emollients (e.g., mallow, altea, and borage), stimulants (e.g., lavender, thyme, sage, juniper, and rosemary), bioactivators (e.g., calendula and carrot). They can be used as such or through their fluid extracts, and, with the addition of natural excipients, they can be used for natural functional cosmetics. The excipients are products that support and convey active and functional plant extracts. Essential oils or essences are an important part of phytocosmetics; they are obtained by the distillation of medicinal aromatic plants, obtaining a separation of the volatile component distillable from the non-volatile. These essential oils are diluted in appropriate solvents and applied in aesthetics according to their properties [63].
A review by Barbulova et al. (2015) reported some examples of the most important applications of agricultural food by-products in cosmetics and their performance as efficacy and safety [64]. In another review, Zappelli et al. (2016) showed examples of active cosmetic ingredients developed through biotechnological systems, whose activity on the skin has been scientifically proven through in vitro and clinical studies [65]. More recently, the reasons and the characteristics as well as the challenges of plant cell culture-based productions for the cosmetic and food industries are discussed in a review by Eibl et al. (2018) [66].
In the case of RSLDE, an active action is carried out towards the substances to be extracted; in fact, the compounds not chemically bound to the solid matrix are extracted in small quantities at each extraction cycle (active process) until the matrix is completely exhausted. The advantage is that the whole process takes place in the order of hours. The important consequences of the use of this technique are the possibility of extracting vegetable matrices with water. Therefore, it is possible to extract substances at temperatures even lower than room temperature for any thermolabile compounds. Moreover, these applications can be implemented on industrial, domestic, and lab scales [11].

4.3. The Herbal Sector

In the herbal and phytotherapy sector, both in production and research, RSLDE can be used for the extraction of plants and medicinal herbs for the production of fluid extracts. Since it is not necessary to heat the extraction system, it is possible to produce teas and/or infusions at room temperature, keeping the active ingredients unaltered.
Fresh plants of Malva silvestris were extracted with water using RSLDE, and the effects of terpenoids and phenol isolated from this plant on the germination and growth of dicotyledon Lactuca sativa L. (lettuce) were studied [67].
In a study by Ferrara et al. (2014), a conventional extraction technique (UAE) and a cyclically pressurized Solid-Liquid extraction (RSLDE) were compared, in order to obtain qualitative and quantitative data related to the bioactive compounds of saffron. The results obtained showed that extracts via RSLDE had significant advantages in terms of extraction efficiency and the quality of the extract [68].

4.4. The Food and Beverage Sector

In the food sector, both in production and research, RSLDE has been applied in various ways. Lycopene, the carotenoid responsible for the red color of many fruits and vegetables, is considered fundamental for its antioxidant action. Therefore, its extraction is of great interest in various sectors. In fact, it can be used both for the formulation of functional foods and in cosmetics. In addition, lycopene can be extracted from tomato processing waste using only water as an extract liquid. The use of water as an extracting phase considerably reduces the cost of the entire process when compared with the commonly used solvent-based procedure or with the newer supercritical extraction process of lycopene from tomato waste. Lycopene, not soluble in water, was recovered in a quasi-crystalline solid form and purified by solid-phase extraction using a small amount of organic solvent [69]. Lycopene can be used as a dye and/or a natural antioxidant. Moreover, through RSLDE, it is also possible to produce limoncello, a lemon liqueur, in just two hours, avoiding the long traditional maceration that takes 7–14 days [70]. Nowadays the industrial process for the production of lemon liquor is performed via maceration, as home-made products are made, and the process requires at least 48 h of lemon peel infusion in alcohol.

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